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OF  CALIFORNIA 

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THE   ISLAND 

OF 

MINDANAO 

PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS 

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THE  SUBANU 

Studies  OF  A  SuB-VisAYAN  Mountain  Folk 

OF  Mindanao 


Part  I.    Ethnographical  and  Geographical 
Sketch  of  Land  and  People 

By  LIEUT.-COL.  JOHN  PARK  FINLEY,  U.  S.  A. 


Part  II.    Discussion  of  the  Linguistic  Material 

By  WILLIAM  CHURCHILL 


Part  III.    Vocabularies 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

PtJBLISHED   BY   THE   CaRNEGIE   INSTITUTION    OP   WASHINGTON 

1913 


>5'^^? 


CARNEGIE   INSTITUTION   OF   WASHINGTON 
Publication  No.  184 


PRESS   OF    GIBSON   BROTHERS,    INC. 
WASHINGTON,    D.   C. 


CONTENTS. 


Part  I.    A  Brief  History  of  the  Subanu. 

Page. 

Tribal  Designation i 

The  Home  Land 4 

Population 8 

Discovery  History 8 

Slow  Modification  of  Culture 12 

The  Industrial  Life 15 

Construction  and  Location  of  Houses 21 

Manufactures 23 

Characteristics  and  Habits 26 

Religion 32 

Burial  Customs 38 

Marriage  and  Divorce 39 

Part  II.     Discussion  of  the  Linguistic  Material. 

Chapter     I.     Pitfalls  of  the  Vocabulist 45 

Chapter    II.     Subanu  Phonetics  and  Composition  Members 55 

Chapter  III.     Subanu- Visayan  Filiation 77 

Chapter  IV.     Polynesian  and  Malayan 99 

Part  III. 

Subanu-English  Vocabulary 179 

Engli.sh-Subanu  Vocabulary 217 

Bibliography 230 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Map  of  the  Island  of  Mindanao Frontispiece 

Map  of  Sub-District  of  Dapitan.  District  of  Zamboanga 236 


THE  SUBANU 

Studies  of  a  Sub-Visayan  Mountain  Folk 
OF  Mindanao 


Part  I. 

Ethnographical  and  Geographical  Sketch  of 
Land  and  People 

By  JOHN  PARK  FINLEY 
Lieutenant-Colonel  of  Infantry,  U.  S.  A.,  Governor  of  Xamboanga 


THE  SUBANU. 


A  BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  SUBANU. 

TRIBAL  DESIGNATION. 

The  term  Subanun  (Subanon)  is  of  Moro  (Sulu)  origin  and  signifies 
a  man  or  people  of  the  river  or,  more  exactly,  a  man  or  people  from  up 
the  river.  The  Sulu  equivalent  of  the  word  river  is  soba;  of  the  phrase 
up  the  river,  the  equivalent  is  sumud  ha  soba.  The  suffix  nun  denotes 
locality  or  place  of  habitation.  The  suffix  non  has  a  similar  significa- 
tion in  Visayan.  The  suffixes  num  and  nom  possess  similar  meanings 
in  the  dialects  of  Ilocano,  Lepanto,  and  Bontoc,  and  in  some  of  the 
Formosan  dialects.  According  to  the  Spanish  nomenclature  this  term 
is  written  Subano.  When  these  people  are  interrogated,  those  living 
near  the  coast  call  themselves  Subanu  or  Subano ;  those  Hving  near  the 
headwaters  of  the  rivers  and  in  the  mountains  call  themselves  tan  bukid 
or  tan  buid,  meaning,  respectively,  man  of  the  hills  or  hill-man,  or  man 
of  the  fields.  The  word  bukid  in  Visayan  means  hill  or  mountain,  in 
Tagalog  it  means  field  or  country. 

Christie  says: 

The  name  Subanun  means  river  dweller,  from  the  word  suba  river,  common 
to  Philippine  dialects,  including  Sulu  and  Visaya.  This  term  was  applied  to 
the  tribe  because  its  members  are  met  with  in  going  up  the  river  from  the  coast, 
in  contradistinction  to  the  Mores  and  Christians  of  the  Zamboanga  Peninsula, 
who  are  coast  dwellers.  Probably  the  term  was  first  applied  by  these  people 
to  themselves.* 

The  habitat  of  these  people  is  confined  to  the  interior  and  moun- 
tainous portions  of  the  Zamboanga  district  of  the  great  island  of  Min- 
danao. In  his  history  of  Mindanao  and  Sulu,  published  in  1667,  Father 
Francisco  Combes  calls  the  Subanu  the  "fourth  nation  of  Mindanao" 
and  refers  to  them  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  rivers,  to  which  they  owe 
their  name,  as  the  radical  suba  is  the  "word  used  by  the  nations  (tribes) 
of  Mindanao  for  river." 

The  names  of  tribes,  of  persons,  of  titles,  of  places,  and  of  natural 
features  in  the  PhiUppines  have  been  subject  to  much  irregularity  and 
confusion  in  their  orthographical  presentation.  This  is  due  to  the 
absence  of  an  estabUshed  orthographic  system,  the  neglect  of  such  a 
system  when  properly  authorized,  ignorance  of  or  indifference  to  the 

*Emerson  Brewer  Christie:  The  Subanuns  of  Sindangan  Bay.  Manila,  1909: 
Bureau  of  Science,  Division  of  Ethnology;  Publications,  vol.  vi,  part  i,  pp.  121,  chart,  29 
illustrations. 

1 


2  THS   SUBANU. 

application  of  any  system,  and  attempts  at  individual  phonetics.  Thus 
great  diversity  appears  in  official  reports,  both  civil  and  military,  and 
in  the  construction  of  maps  of  the  islands.  An  example  is  given  in  the 
spelhng  of  the  Sulu  term  datu  (chief),  a  Moro  designation  of  rank, 
variously  written  as:  datoh,  datto,  dattu,  dato,  datoo,  dattoh,  and  datu, 
the  last  being  the  best  form,  according  to  Saleeby's  system  of  trans- 
literation, described  briefly  as  follows  in  his  Studies  in  Moro  History, 
Law  and  Religion  (Ethnological  Survey  of  the  Philippine  Islands) : 

In  translating  the  tarsila  (original  manuscripts)  such  a  large  number  of 
words  have  to  be  transHterated  that  it  is  deemed  necessary  to  adopt  a  system 
of  transUteration  which  can  be  easily  understood  by  every  English  reader  and 
which  is  more  adequate  to  express  Magindanao  sounds  than  either  Spanish 
or  English.  With  the  exception  of  ng  and  sh  the  characters  used  in  this  system 
represent  simple  sounds  only.  Every  radical  modification  of  a  certain  simple 
sound  is  regarded  as  a  different  simple  sound  and  is  represented  by  a  separate 
and  distinct  character.  Every  compound  sound  is  represented  by  those  char- 
acters that  express  its  simple  constituent  sounds.  It  is  an  unvarying  rule  in 
this  system  that  every  character  represents  an  invariable  sound  and  every 
sound  has  only  one  invariable  character. 

We  have  already  observed  a  considerable  variation  in  the  orthog- 
raphy of  the  tribal  name  of  the  Subanuns,  which  in  that  form  has  the 
sanction  of  the  Phihppine  Bureau  of  Science.  If  the  word  is  spelled 
as  generally  pronounced  by  the  members  of  the  tribe,  and  applying  the 
principles  of  the  Saleeby  system,  it  would  be  written  Subanu.* 

Concerning  this  question  of  orthography  and  nomenclature,  Blu- 
mentrit  said  in  1 890 : 

Notwithstanding  the  rich  literature  concerning  the  peoples  and  languages 
of  the  Phihppine  Archipelago,  there  is  no  book  or  publication  in  which  are 
catalogued  the  names  of  the  tribes  and  the  languages,  and  this  appears  the 
more  inexcusable  since  both  Spanish  and  Philippine  writers,  with  few  excep- 
tions, handle  these  names  very  carelessly,  so  that  great  confusion  must  ensue. 

The  prevailing  bad  form  in  the  PhiUppines  of  transferring  the  name  of  one 
people  or  family  to  another,  who  possess  similarities  of  any  kind  with  the  first, 
either  in  manner  or  life,  or  even  only  in  culture  grade  in  the  widest  sense  of  the 
term,  has  its  counterpart  in  a  second  bad  fashion  of  making  several  peoples 
out  of  one  by  replacing  the  folk  name  with  the  tribal  names.  Only  with  the 
greatest  pains  and  thought  is  it  possible  to  extricate  one's  self  from  this  laby- 
rinth of  nomenclature.  After  thorough  search  I  am  convinced  that  many 
names  reported  to  me  must  be  eliminated,  since  they  owe  their  existence  to 
mistakes  in  penmanship  or  printing,  to  ridicule,  misunderstanding,  or  to  error, 
as  I  have  proved  in  single  instances. 

*For  the  reasons  stated  in  the  preceding  sentence  it  has  seemed  preferable  to  adopt  for 
this  work  the  designation  Subanu  and  to  employ  it  indeclinably.  The  derivation  proposed 
by  the  several  authorities  cited  in  the  preceding  pages  is  in  violation  of  the  principles  of 
composition  employed  in  the  language.  Thus  suba  is  river,  -nan  is  locative;  observe  in  the 
vocabulary  sinbaan,  a  church  as  the  place  (locative  -an)  in  which  worship  {sinba)  is  per- 
formed; accordingly,  subanun  would  not  mean  people  of  rivers,  but  a  place  where  rivers  are. 
Furthermore,  in  the  language,  -an  is  the  locative  suffix,  -nan  is  restricted  to  the  value  of 
forming  nouns  of  quality  from  adjectives.  The  suffix  -n  is  employed  to  form  collective 
plurals,  therefore  Subanun  means  only  all  the  Subanu.  Following  the  best  modern  usage 
we  shall  employ  Subanu  for  singular  and  pliu-al,  as  noun  and  adjective. — W.  C. 


TRIBAL  DESIGNATION.  3 

Dr.  Barrows,  in  his  paper  on  the  non-Christian  tribes  of  Mindanao, 
pubHshed  in  the  Census  of  the  PhiHppine  Islands,  1903,  states: 

The  word  Subanon  is  derived  from  the  very  common  Malayan  word  suba, 
meaning  river,  and  the  suffix  non,  meaning  people  of.  It  is  a  good  tribal  desig- 
nation, is  in  general  use,  and  has  been  recorded  a  long  while.  The  Subanons 
are  the  only  Pagan  people  of  Mindanao  among  which  I  have  spent  sufficient 
time  to  judge  somewhat  of  the  type,  the  language,  and  culture.  They  appear 
to  be  a  representative  type  of  the  primitive  Malayan  race  widely  distributed 
through  the  Malayan  archipelago,  who  have  been  forced  back  from  the  sea  in 
the  interior  by  the  arrival  and  persecutions  of  the  sea-faring  Malays,  both 
previous  and  subsequent  to  the  latter's  conversion  to  Mohammedanism. 

Mason,  in  his  introduction  to  Blumentrit's  work  on  the  native 
tribes  and  languages  of  the  Philippines,  says : 

To  unravel  the  mysteries  set  forth  by  the  foregoing  is  the  opportunity  of 
the  ethnologist.  It  needs  only  to  look  back  upon  the  bloody  horrors  enacted 
in  our  own  history  through  lack  of  knowledge  concerning  the  social  organi- 
zation and  prejudices  of  the  Indians,  to  awaken  the  liveliest  sympathies  and 
cooperation  of  the  statesmen  and  philanthropists  in  the  ethnology  of  the 
Philippines. 

Since  the  above  criticisms  were  published  much  has  been  accom- 
plished to  correct  the  evils  complained  of.  Labors  to  this  end  have 
been  unremitting  by  the  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment and  by  the  Bureau  of  Science  of  the  Philippine  government  at 
Manila.  Much  yet  remains  to  be  done,  and  the  field  for  faithful  and 
patient  research  is  a  large  one,  offering  rich  rewards  to  ethnologists  of 
the  highest  ability ;  private  munificence  has  an  unusual  opportunity  in 
promoting  this  most  important  survey  of  primitive  people,  including 
Indonesians,  Malayans,  and  European  and  Asiatic  mestizos. 

Blumentrit  in  "Native  Tribes  of  the  PhiHppines"  mentions  "the 
Subanos  (Subanon,  river  people)  as  a  heathen  people  of  Malay  extrac- 
tion who  occupy  the  entire  peninsula  of  Sibuguey  (west  Mindanao) 
with  the  exception  of  a  single  strip  on  the  south  coast." 

On  a  chart  of  the  Philippine  Islands  and  China  Sea,  engraved  in 
Manila  in  1734,  from  data  obtained  from  Spanish  and  British  naviga- 
tors, the  native  inhabitants  of  the  Zamboanga  and  Dapitan  districts 
are  referred  to  as  "Subanirs"  and  "Solocos,"  and  the  territory  as  a 
part  of  the  great  island  of  "Majindanao,"  as  it  was  then  written. 

Along  the  western  shore  of  lUana  Bay  (then  called  Bongo  Bay) 
the  inhabitants  are  referred  to  as  "Moors,"  a  translation  of  the  Spanish 
designation  for  the  Alohammedan  tribes,  Moros. 

In  the  record  of  his  voyages  (i 774-1 775)  Captain  Forrest  uses  the 
terms  "Haraforas,  Sunabos,  Kanakan  and  Oran  Manubo"  as  applied 
to  the  Subanu  of  Mindanao.     He  describes  them  as — 

the  vassals  of  the  Sultan  and  of  others  who  possess  great  estates.  Those  vas- 
sals are  sometimes  Mahometans,  though  mostly  Haraforas  (heathen).  The 
latter  only  may  be  sold  w^th  the  lands,  but  can  not  be  sold  off  the  lands. 


4  THE   SUBANU. 

The  Haraforas  are  more  opprest  than  the  former.  The  Mahometan  vassals 
are  bound  to  accompany  their  lords  on  any  sudden  expedition,  but  the  Hara- 
foras, being  in  a  great  measure  excused  from  such  attendance,  pay  yearly  taxes 
which  are  not  expected  from  the  Mahometan  vassals.  They  pay  a  boiss  or 
land  tax.  Those  vassals  at  Magindano  (Kutabatu  Valley)  have  what  land 
they  please,  and  the  Mahometans  on  the  seacoast,  whether  free  or  Kanakan 
(slaves),  live  mostly  by  trading  with  the  Haraforas  (heathen),  while  their  own 
gardens  produce  them  betel  nuts,  coconuts,  and  greens. 

Forrest  evidently  used  the  term  "Haraforas"  in  a  generic  sense  as 
pertaining  to  Pagan  peons  wherever  found.  He  writes  of  the  "Hara- 
foras" of  New  Guinea  as  subject  to  the  control  of  their  overlords. 
Blair  and  Robertson  comment  on  this  term  as  follows : 

Crawfurd  in  his  Dictionary  Ind.  Islands  explains  this  name  as  a  corrup- 
tion of  Alf oras ;  it  is  not  a  native  word  at  all,  nor  is  it  the  generic  name  of  any 
people  whatsoever.  It  is  a  word  of  the  Portuguese  language,  apparently 
derived  from  the  Arabic  article  al  and  the  preposition  for  a  (without) .  The 
Indian  Portuguese  applied  it  to  all  people  beyond  their  own  authority  or  who 
were  not  subdued  by  them,  and  consequently  to  the  wild  races  of  the  interior. 
It  would  seem  to  be  equivalent  to  the  "Indios  bravos"  of  the  Spaniards,  as 
applied  to  the  wild  and  unconquered  tribes  of  America  and  the  Philippines. 

THE  HOME  LAND. 

From  the  published  records  of  the  early  Spanish  discoveries,  more 
especially  from  the  writings  of  Father  Francisco  Combes  (1667),  in  his 
History  of  Mindanao  and  Sulu,  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that 
the  Subanu  were  the  aborigines*  of  western  Mindanao,  viz :  that  portion 
of  the  great  island  lying  west  of  the  Isthmus  of  Tukuran,  separating 
the  bays  of  Iligan  and  Illana.  It  was  over  this  isthmus  that  the  Spanish 
General  Weyler  (governor-general  of  the  Philippines,  1 889-1 891)  com- 
pleted, in  1890,  a  military  trocha  or  line  of  fortified  stations,  named 
after  members  of  the  Spanish  royal  family,  as  Fort  Cristina,  Fort  Isabel, 
and  Fort  Alfonso.  In  his  plans  for  the  subjugation  of  Mindanao, 
General  Weyler  constructed  this  trocha  for  the  purpose  of  shutting  out 
the  Malanao  Moros  (Moros  of  the  lake  region)  from  the  Subanu 
country  (western  Mindanao)  and  preventing  further  destructive  raids 
upon  the  peaceful  and  industrious  peasants  of  these  hills.  In  further- 
ance of  this  project  he  proposed  to  the  Spanish  Cortes  the  granting  of 
an  appropriation  for  the  construction  of  a  canal  across  this  isthmus, 
which  he  estimated  could  be  accomplished  with  native  labor  at  mod- 
erate expense,  by  following  and  improving  the  course  of  the  Tukuran 
River  and  of  the  Lintogud  stream  connecting  with  Pangil  Bay  on  the 
north,  a  branch  of  the  much  larger  Iligan  Bay. 

The  miUtary  preparations  at  the  Tukuran  (south)  end  of  the  trocha 
consisted  of  a  stone  blockhouse  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tukuran  River; 

*The  term  is  properly  used  only  as  relative  to  later  and  dominant  Malay  races.  We 
shall  see  that  the  Subanu  are  an  older  stock  of  the  Visayan  family,  therefore  Malays  and 
comparatively  late  comers.  They  have  nothing  in  common  with  the  persistent  pygmy  race 
of  autochthons  of  whom  the  Aeta  stand  as  type  specimens — W.  C. 


THE   HOME  LAND.  5 

earthworks  on  the  high  bluffs  above  the  river  on  the  east  side ;  a  stone 
fort  on  a  knoll  about  lOO  yards  further  east;  another  stone  blockhouse 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  east  of  the  river  and  on  a  knoll  overlooking 
the  sea,  and  guarding  the  water  supply  for  the  post.  In  connection 
with  the  earthworks  on  the  bluffs  the  Spaniards  constructed  quarters, 
barracks,  storehouses,  hospital,  and  magazines  for  the  use  of  infantry 
and  artillery.  A  good  wagon-road  was  built  from  Tukuran  to  Lintogud, 
connecting  the  fortified  stations  of  Cristina,  Isabel,  and  Alfonso.  Tele- 
graphic communication  was  established  between  Tukuran  and  these 
stations,  and  thence  to  Misamis,  at  the  head  of  Pangil  Bay.  Thus  it 
will  be  seen  that  extensive  preparations  were  made  by  the  Spanish 
government  to  prevent  Moro  raids  across  the  Tukuran  isthmus  against 
the  Subanu  of  the  Zamboanga  and  Dapitan  districts.  The  government 
appreciated  the  peaceful  attitude  of  the  Subanu  and  their  industrious 
habits  as  the  native  farmers  of  the  hills,  and  General  Weyler  displayed 
a  fine  sense  of  justice  and  high  quaUties  as  a  governor  by  zealously 
engaging  with  generous  plans  for  the  protection  of  a  people  who  pre- 
ferred peace  and  agricultural  development  to  piracy  and  war. 

In  a  review  of  the  plans  of  General  Weyler  for  the  subjugation  of 
the  Mindanao  Moros  and  for  guarding  the  interests  of  the  Subanu, 
Retana  writes  in  1896  as  follows: 

Uno  de  sus  primeros  cuidados  du^  la  construcci6n  del  camino  militar  de 
Tucuran  a  Misamis,  para  establecer  una  comunicaci6n  de  N.  a  S.,  que  no  la 
habia  en  el  interior  de  la  isla,  am^n  de  defender  a  los  subanos,  gente  pacifica, 
de  las  agresiones  de  los  moros,  que  solian  secuestrarlos  para  reducirlos  a  la  mas 
infamante  esclavitud.  El  trazado  de  esta  trocha,  justo  es  decirlo,  era  obra 
enterior  a  la  posesion  de  Weyler;  pero  adolecia  de  grandisimos  defectos,  y  de 
Weyler  es  la  gloria  de  la  rectificacci6n,  asi  como  la  construccion,  que  se  di6 
poer  terminada  el  12  deMarzo  del  '90.  Mide  la  trocha  28  kilometros  de  larga,y 
en  ella  se  establecieron  los  fuertes  de  Tucuran  6  Alfonso  XIII,  Infanta  Isabel  6 
Lubig,  y  Lintogut,  en  el  fondo  de  la  bahia  de  Pangil.  Desde  este  ultimo  punto 
no  fu^  posible  continuar  el  camino  a  Misamis,  a  causa  de  ser  el  terreno  panta- 
noso;  pero  se  hace  por  mar  a  Balatacan,  continuandose  el  camino  a  Tangot,  y 
desde  aqui  a  Misamis.  Tambi^n  en  estos  puntos  se  pusieron  fuertes.  Prac- 
ticaronse  reconocimientos,  de  orden  del  General,  para  ver  si  era  posible  abrir  un 
camino  desde  Lintogut  6  Lubig  hacia  la  punta  de  Binuni;  pero  huba  de  desis- 
tirse  por  lo  mucho  que  hubiera  costado  su  construcci6n.  Con  todo,  una  vez 
establecida  la  linea  de  fuertes  de  la  trocha  de  Tucuran,  habia  mucho  granado 
para  ir  dominando  de  una  manera  efectiva  la  parte  mas  importante  de  la  isla ; 
y  despues  de  situar  destacamentos  en  los  puntos  mencionados,  piisose  otro 
en  Margo-sa-Tubig,  en  la  bahia  de  Dumanquilas,  a  mas  de  que  dicto  disposi- 
ciones  para  tener  en  frecuente  relaci6n  por  mar  los  principales  puntos  que 
existen  desde  Dapitan  a  Cagayan  de  Misamis,  y  restablecer  el  serv^icio  mari- 
time de  guerra  en  la  costa  Sur  de  la  isla  para  impedir  expediciones  piraticas. 

After  American  occupation  Tukuran  was  garrisoned  by  United 
States  troops,  and  telegraphic  connection  by  cable  was  established  with 
Zamboanga  and  Jolo  to  the  south  and  west,  and  with  Misamis  and 
Manila  to  the  north.     Troops  occupied  the  old  Spanish  fort  at  Misamis 


6  THE  SUBANU. 

and  the  military  trocha  was  maintained  in  fairly  good  condition  until 
the  latter  part  of  1902,  when  regular  troops  were  removed  and  the 
whole  trocha  left  to  the  control  of  the  Masibai  Moros,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Datu  Maminton.  The  Moros  took  advantage  of  this  absence 
of  troops  to  resume  their  raids  upon  the  Subanu  and  made  it  necessary 
to  reestablish  the  garrison  at  Tukuran  in  January,  1903,  and  to  cause 
the  trocha  to  be  patrolled  from  Tukuran  to  Misamis. 

When  the  regular  troops  were  again  withdrawn  they  were  replaced 
by  native  troops,  constabulary  at  first,  succeeded  in  1908  by  Philippine 
scouts,  which  continue  to  garrison  the  trocha. 

When  the  Spanish  military  occupation  of  the  Tukuran-Lintogud- 
Misamis  trocha  ceased,  in  1899,  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  troops  of 
Spain,  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  Paris,  the  Masibai 
Moros  fell  again  into  control  and  resumed  their  depredations  against 
the  Subanu  in  the  Zamboanga  district  and  against  the  Filipinos  and 
Subanu  in  the  Misamis  district.  These  raids  involved  the  destruction 
of  life  and  property  and  the  carrying  of  many  people  into  bondage. 
A  Moro  village  was  reopened  at  Tukuran  on  each  side  of  the  river; 
and  the  military  buildings,  together  with  a  Moro  kota  (fort)  on  the 
west  side  of  the  river,  were  occupied  by  Moros  until  they  were  forced 
to  abandon  the  situation  by  the  appearance  of  American  troops  on 
October  15,  1900.  Telegraphic  communication  was  then  established 
with  the  north  coast  at  Misamis  in  time  to  connect  with  the  Manila 
cable  on  January  i,  1901, 

Father  Pablo  Pastell,  writing  of  the  native  people  of  Mindanao, 
under  date  of  April  20,  1887,  says  of  the  Subanu: 

The  Subanuns  are  a  tribe  that  has  become  degenerate  because  of  the  per- 
secutions which  they  have  had  to  endure  from  the  Moros,  who  collect  large 
tributes  from  them.  They  are  husbandmen,  but  the  Moros  gain  the  benefit  of 
their  sweat.  They  are  long-suffering  and  pacific,  for  they  are  not  accustomed 
to  the  handling  of  arms.  They  are  also  superstitious  and  ignorant.  Their 
docility  would  render  their  complete  reduction  very  easy.  They  occupy 
almost  all  the  peninsula  of  Sibuguey  and  are  contiguous  to  the  Moros  of  Lanao 
and  of  the  bay  of  Illana.  The  latter  make  use  of  them,  for  they  enslave  them 
in  order  to  make  them  work  their  fields.  The  military  road  from  Tucuran  to 
Maranding,  on  the  way  to  Misamis,  will  destroy  the  dominion  exercised  by  the 
Illanos  Moros  and  those  of  Lanao  over  the  Subanos,  for  it  will  destroy  the 
piracy  and  captivity,  because  of  the  impossibility  of  communication  across  the 
trocha.  At  the  same  time  it  will  facilitate  the  action  of  the  missionaries  in  the 
reduction  of  the  said  heathens. 

As  one  of  the  primitive  tribes  of  Mindanao,  the  Subanu  quite 
naturally  covered  that  portion  (panhandle)  of  the  great  island  lying 
west  of  the  isthmus  of  Tukuran,  this  territory  being  of  uniform  topog- 
raphy, the  interior  capable  of  intercommunication  by  trails,  the  streams 
small  and  at  frequent  intervals,  and  the  soil  and  timber  well  adapted 
to  rude  methods  of  cultivation.  Father  Combes  says  that  he  found 
a  few  Negritos  (Aetas)  in  the  Misamis  strip,  but  Barrows,  in  his  chart 


THE   HOME   LAND. 


of  the  races  and  tribes,  shows  that  they  were  confined  to  Surigao  in 
extreme  northeast  Mindanao.  If  these  dwarfs  ever  inhabited  any  por- 
tion of  the  Zamboanga  and  Dapitan  districts,  every  trace  has  long 
ago  disappeared.  These  districts,  from  an  aboriginal  viewpoint, 
form  the  Subanu  country,  which  has  been  held  by  them  exclusively, 
especially  the  mountain  areas,  from  the  earliest  times. 

The  Subanu  have  never  left  their  home  country  (the  panhandle  of 
Mindanao)  except  as  they  have  been  carried  away  in  involuntary  ser- 
vitude by  Moros  and  Filipinos.  Originally  occupying  the  entire  land 
area  to  the  coast  line,  they  have  been  gradually  driven  back  into  the 
most  inaccessible  portions  of  the  mountainous  interior  by  the  raids  and 
exploitation  of  their  long-time  enemies,  the  Moros  and  Filipinos. 

There  is  a  legend  among  the  Subanu  that  their  first  chief  was  a 
giant  by  the  name  of  Tabunaway;  that  he  lived  and  ruled  over  his 
people  before  the  appearance  of  the  Moros  and  therefore  before  the 
coming  of  the  Spaniards;  that  his  residence  was  near  the  place  now 
called  Zamboanga,  then  known  as  Nawang;  that  when  the  first  Moros 
(about  the  year  1380)  came,  they  wanted  to  exchange  their  fish  for  the 
fruit  of  the  land  and  guided  their  boat  up  a  river  into  the  hills  for  the 
purpose ;  the  fish  were  placed  on  the  rocks  at  the  landing-place  and  the 
Moros  retired  to  await  the  coming  of  the  hill  people  who,  when  they 
came  down  the  trail  and  saw  the  strange  fish,  tried  them  for  food  and 
were  pleased;  so  they  gave  of  their  own  food  (rice,  sugar-cane,  and  ubi) 
and  placed  it  on  the  stones  from  which  the  fish  were  taken.  Thus 
began,  several  centuries  ago,  the  exchange  of  products  between  the  hill 
people  and  the  coast  or  sea  people.  The  industrial  significance  of  this 
primitive  trade  relation,  as  a  factor  in  the  political  and  commercial 
development  of  these  natives,  was  not  appreciated  by  the  Spanish. 
After  American  occupation  in  1 899  the  writer  began  the  study  of  these 
trade  relations  between  the  hill  people  and  the  coast  people,  which  in 
1904  resulted  in  the  development  of  the  Moro  Exchange  system  of 
markets,  trading  stores  and  tribal  ward  farms,  which  by  June  30,  191 1, 
were  turning  out  a  business  of  1,000,000  pesos  annually.  So  much  for 
the  controlled  productive  development  of  a  savage  people  which  pro- 
vides for  honest  living  and  moral  responsibility  while  industrial  uplift  is 
being  promoted. 

Localities  and  association  with  other  people  affect  the  Subanu  to 
some  extent,  more  especially  in  dialect,  in  dress,  and  in  methods  of 
agriculture.  According  to  locality  these  people  may  be  designated  as 
follows : 


1.  Subanu  of  Dapitan  (Illaya  valley). 

2.  Subanu  of  the  Dipolog  valley. 

3.  Subanu  of  Bukidnon,  Misarais  strip. 

4.  Subanu  of  Manukan  valley. 

5.  Subanu  of  Sindangan  Bay. 

6.  Subanu  of  Panganuran  and  Coronado. 

7.  Subanu  of  Siukun  (Sicogon,  Siocon). 


8.  Subanu    of    Kipit     (modem    Spanish, 

Quipit;  old  Spanish,  by  Pigafetta, 
Chipit,  Chippit,  Cippit;  by  the  Ro- 
teiro,  Capyam,  Quype;  by  Peter 
Martyr,  Chipico;  in  Transylvanus, 
Gibity;  and  in  Barros,  Quepindo). 

9.  Subanu  of  Malayal  and  Patalun. 


8 


THE   SUBANU. 


10.  Subanu  of  Belong  valley.  i6.  Subanu  of  Dipolo  valley. 

11.  Subanu  of  Tupilak  valley.  17.  Subanu  of  Dinas  valley. 

12.  Subanu  of  Bakalan  valley.  18.  Subanu  of  Lubukan  valley. 

13.  Subanu  of  Lei-Batu  valley.  19.  Subanu  of  Labangan  valley. 

14.  Subanu  of  Sibugai-Sei  valley.  20.  Subanu  of  Mipangi  valley. 

15.  Subanu  of  Dumankilas  Bay. 

The  above  localities  of  Subanu  culture  are  in  juxtaposition  to  a 
variety  of  other  native  cultures;  the  following  gives  their  designations 
and  the  dialects  they  use : 

5.  Samales,  Samal-Sulu-Moro  dialect. 

6.  Magindanaos,  Magindanao-Moro  dialect. 

7.  Kalibugans,  Kalibugan-Moro  dialect. 

8.  Illanos,  lUano-Ranao-Moro  dialect  closely 
allied  to  Magindanao  dialect. 


1.  Dapitanos,  Cebuan-Visaya  dialect. 

2.  Boholanos,  Boholan-Visaya  dialect. 

3.  Joloanos,  Sulu-Moro  dialect. 

4.  Zamboangans,  Zamboangueno  or  Taga- 

log-Visaya  dialect. 


POPULATION. 

No  accurate  census  of  the  Subanu  people  has  ever  been  taken. 
The  American  census  of  1903  conducted  by  General  Sanger,  U.  S.  Army, 
under  the  direction  of  the  Philippine  Commission,  furnished  the  fol- 
lowing data  for  a  portion  of  the  Subanu  country,  the  panhandle  of 
Mindanao: 

The  sub-district  of  Dapitan 5,995 

The  Misamis  strip 3,4i  8 

The  Zamboanga  settlements 13.170 

Total 22,583 

The  following  estimate  for  191 2  is  taken  from  the  records  of  the 
ofl&ce  of  the  governor  of  the  District  of  Zamboanga : 

Municipality  of  Zamboanga 362 

Municipality  of  Dapitan 696 

Tribal  Ward  No.  2 10,895 


Tribal  Ward  No.  3 

Tribal  Ward  No.  4 

Tribal  Ward  No.  5 

Tribal  Ward  No.  6 

Tribal  Ward  No.  7 

Bukidnon-Misamis  strip , 


7.636 
9.954 
4.447 
8,521 
2,875 
4.778 


Total 47.164 

In  1897  the  Spanish  general  and  governor  of  Mindanao,  Gonzalez 
Parado,  submitted  an  official  estimate  of  the  tribal  population  of  Min- 
danao, in  which  he  classifies  16  different  tribes  of  non- Christians  and 
places  the  Subanu  population  at  70,000.  It  has  been  found,  however, 
that  the  Spanish  records  of  population  were  not  prepared  with  sufficient 
care  to  insure  accuracy,  especially  in  the  making  of  estimates.  The 
tendency  seemed  to  be  in  the  direction  of  exaggeration. 

DISCOVERY  HISTORY. 

The  first  contact  of  white  men  with  the  Subanu  was  on  the  north 
coast  of  Mindanao,  near  what  is  now  Dapitan,  by  the  Magellan  expedi- 
tion on  its  way  southward  from  Cebu  about  May  6,  152 1,  and  described 
by  Pigafetta  as  follows: 


DISCOVERY   HISTORY.  9 

After  coasting  along  the  island  of  Panilongon  (Panglao,  off  S.  E.  coast  of 
Bohol)  where  black  men  like  those  in  Ethiopia  live,  we  then  came  to  a  large 
island  (Mindanao)  whose  king,  in  order  to  make  peace  with  us,  drew  blood 
from  his  left  hand,  marking  his  body,  face,  and  the  tip  of  his  tongue  with  it  as  a 
token  of  the  closest  friendship,  and  we  did  the  same.  I  went  ashore  with  the 
king  in  order  to  see  that  island.  Two  hours  after  nightfall  we  reached  the 
king's  house,  two  leguas  from  the  beginning  of  the  river.  The  king's  name  is 
Raia  Calanao.     The  harbor  is  an  excellent  one  and  is  called  Chipit. 

By  some  writers  this  word  "Chipit"  is  interrupted  as  "Quipit," 
a  Moro  rancheria  on  the  northwest  coast  of  the  Zamboanga  peninsula, 
about  45  miles  south  of  Dapitan,  but  without  a  harbor,  and  where  ships 
can  not  lie  with  safety  during  the  southwest  monsoon. 

In  1656  Father  Francisco  Colin,  in  writing  of  the  Subanu  of  the 
Dapitan  district,  describes  them  as  "the  nation  of  Subanos,  which  is 
the  most  numerous  in  the  island  of  Mindanao  and  well  disposed  toward 
evangelical  instruction,  as  they  are  heathens  and  not  Mahometans,  as 
are  the  Mindanaos." 

In  Pigafetta's  account  of  the  voyages  of  Magellan,  1519  to  1522, he 
refers  to  the  journey  from  Jolo  along  the  west  coast  of  the  Zamboanga 
Peninsula  as  follows : 

Then  we  laid  our  course  east  by  north  between  two  settlements  called 
Cauit  and  Subanin,  and  an  inhabited  island  called  ISIonoripa,  located  about 
ten  leguas  from  the  reefs.  The  people  of  that  island  make  their  dwellings  in 
boats  and  do  not  live  otherwise.  In  those  two  settlements  of  Cauit  and 
Subanin,  which  are  located  in  the  island  of  Butuan  and  Calaghan,  is  found  the 
best  cinnamon  that  grows.  Laying  our  course  to  the  northeast,  we  sailed  to  a 
large  city  called  Maingdanao,  which  is  located  in  the  island  of  Butuan  and 
Calaghan,  so  that  we  might  gather  information  concerning  Maluco. 

The  identification  of  this  part  of  the  voyage  north  and  east  from 
Jolo  (written  Zolo  by  Pigafetta)  is  very  much  involved  when  it  is  com- 
pared with  existing  conditions  and  nomenclature.  The  Cauit  referred 
to  may  be  the  rancheria  of  Kauit  located  in  Kauit  Bay  on  the  west 
coast  of  the  Zamboanga  Peninsula,  about  30  miles  north  of  the  town 
of  Zamboanga,  the  present  capital  of  the  Moro  Province.  There  is  a 
small  island  in  Kauit  Bay,  about  one-fourth  mile  from  the  submerged 
reefs  at  the  coast  line,  but  this  island  does  not  answer  to  Pigafetta's 
description  of  Butuan.  The  cave  of  Kaua  Kaua,  near  the  western 
extremity  of  the  town  of  Zamboanga,  is  the  location  of  a  very  old  settle- 
ment of  non-Christians,  which  may  have  been  visited  by  Pigafetta. 
The  settlement  of  Subanin  might  have  been  a  rancheria  of  Subanu 
located  near  Kaua  Kaua.  Off  to  the  southeast  of  Kaua  Kaua,  about 
two  miles,  lie  the  islands  of  Santa  Cruz  small  and  Santa  Cruz  large. 
Farther  to  the  east  in  Basilan  Straits  are  the  islands  of  Coco,  Sibago, 
Lanhil,  Tiktaban,  Bilang  Bilang,  and  Sakol,  the  latter  being  the  largest 
of  the  group — all  at  the  entrance  to  Sibugay  Bay.  If  Pigafetta  entered 
this  bay  on  his  way  south  to  Sarangani  Bay  and  the  Moluccas  (October 
152 1),  he  may  have  seen  and  visited  the  island  of  Buluan  with  its 


10  THE   SUBANU. 

Subanu  settlements,  as  well  as  the  much  larger  island  of  Olutanga  at 
the  entrance  to  Dumankilas  Bay,  also  in  the  possession  of  the  Subanu. 
But  Pigafetta  did  not  tarry  long  at  these  places,  as  he  was  anxious  to 
reach  the  Moluccas  to  obtain  treasure  and  food. 

After  leaving  Maingdanao,  where  they  laid  hold  of  the  brother  of 
the  king  of  that  place,  because  he  could  pilot  the  ships  of  the  fleet  to 
the  Moluccas,  the  captains  changed  their  course  to  the  southeast  and 
arrived  at  Tidor  in  the  Moluccas  on  Friday,  November  8,  152 1 .  None 
of  the  fleet  returned  to  the  Philippines.  The  voyage  through  the  archi- 
pelagos of  Sulu,  Basilan,  and  Mindanao,  governed  as  it  was  by  the 
ever-present  desire  to  reach  the  Moluccas,  afforded  httle  opportunity 
to  study  the  islands  or  their  inhabitants.  The  information  is  indefinite 
and  subject  to  much  corruption  by  the  transcriptions  of  many  authors 
from  the  original  manuscripts  of  Pigafetta.  Blair  and  Robertson  have 
exhibited  rare  skill  and  the  utmost  patience  and  fidelity  in  present- 
ing an  English  translation  and  the  original  Italian,  publishing  them 
together  and  rigidly  preserving  the  peculiarities  of  the  original  text. 
Pigafetta  may  have  met  some  of  the  Subanu  on  the  north  coast  of 
Mindanao  when  the  fleet  stopped  near  Dapitan,  and  again  on  the  south 
coast,  as  the  ships  passed  through  Sibugay  Bay,  but  the  details  will 
always  remain  a  matter  of  conjecture  whereby  the  value  of  the  infor- 
mation is  obscured. 

Professor  Hirth,  the  Chinese  scholar,  thinks  that  the  first  observa- 
tions upon  the  Philippines  are  to  be  found  in  the  work  of  Chao- Jukua, 
inspector  of  foreign  shipping  at  Fu-Kien,  between  the  years  of  12 10  and 
1240.  In  this  work,  the  Chu-Fanchi  or  "Description  of  outside  bar- 
barians," he  speaks  of  the  islands  of  Po-ni  (Borneo),  Ma-i  (Mindanao 
or  Panay),  and  of  the  Pi-Sho-ye  of  Taiwan  (Formosa).  This  latter 
name  sounds  something  Hke  "Bisaya, "  the  native  designation  for 
Visaya.  The  book  mentions  also  the  San-su  or  "Three  Islands."  Book 
325  of  the  History  of  the  Ming  Dynasty  (1368-1634)  of  China,  as 
abstracted  by  Groeneveldt,  refers  to  the  kings  (sultans)  of  Sulu  as 
attacking  Puni  (Borneo)  in  1638,  and  of  the  King  of  Sulu,  Paduka 
(Japanese  "lord")  Pahala,  as  dying  while  on  a  visit  to  the  Emperor  of 
China  at  Te-Chou  on  the  Grand  Canal  (Shantung  Province).  The 
Emperor  then  recognized  his  eldest  son,  Tumohan,  as  Sultan  of  Sulu,  in 
141 7.  The  brother  of  King  Pahala,  who  was  named  Suli,  made  a  visit  to 
China  in  142 1 .  From  this  and  other  extracts  it  appears  that  the  Chinese 
knew  of  the  Mohammedan  settlements  at  Manila  and  Tondo  prior  to 
the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  and  must  have  carried  on  a  lucrative  trade 
with  them;  otherwise  the  pirate  Li-Ma-Hong  would  not  have  made  such 
a  desperate  attempt  to  take  Manila  so  soon  after  its  foundation  in  157 1. 

Saleeby  quotes  Captain  Forrest  (English  navigator,  1 774-1 775)  as 
authority  for  the  statement  that  the  first  Mohammedan  priest  arrived 
in  Mindanao  (Kutabatu  valley)  in  a.  d.  1475.     Father  Combes  in  1645 


DISCOVERY   HISTORY.  11 

found  the  natives  (Boholano  Filipinos)  of  southwestern  Bohol  and  of 
Panglao  Hving  on  the  northwest  coast  of  Mindanao  at  Dapitan.  He 
calls  them  "the  noble  and  brave  nation  of  the  Dapitans,"  and  refers 
to  the  village  of  Dapitan  as  being  small  at  present,  but  as  having  been 
"one  of  the  most  densely  populated  in  the  past,  the  one  most  respected 
for  its  power,  and  in  our  times  the  whole,  both  of  these  conquests  and 
of  their  Christian  churches."     He  states: 

In  a  small  number  reduced  to  one  single  village,  there  is  inclosed  a  nation 
apart  from  all  the  others  and  superior  to  all  those  discovered  in  nobility,  valor, 
fidelity,  and  Catholicism.  They  are  descended  from  the  island  of  Bool  (Bohol), 
where  they  anciently  occupied  the  strait  made  by  that  island  and  the  island 
of  Panglao.  They  occupied  both  shores  and  the  entire  island  of  Panglao. 
[Visited  by  Pigafetta  about  May  3,  152 1,  where  he  found  "black  men  like  those 
in  Ethiopia  live."]  War  exiled  the  Dapitans  from  their  country,  a  proof  of 
their  valor  and  the  unforeseen  accidents  of  their  misfortunes.  Among  the 
Subanos  their  valor  is  so  accredited  that  a  Dapitan  has  nothing  to  fear  among 
a  hundred  of  them.  For  if  they  see  him  ready  for  them  they  do  not  dare  to 
attack  him,  however  thirsty  for  his  blood  their  hatred  makes  them.  The 
Subanos  are  all  the  triumphs  of  the  arms  of  the  Dapitans  of  which  the  sound 
and  vigorous  execution  has  drawn  the  former  from  their  mountains  and  made 
settlements  of  men  from  savages  scattered  among  the  thickets,  who  are  reduced 
to  more  civilized  life. 

It  was  on  the  island  of  Bohol  that  the  Spanish  navigator,  Miguel 
Lopez  de  Legaspi,  about  March  15,  1565,  entered  into  a  blood  compact 
with  Sicatuna,  the  Fihpino  chief  of  that  island.  He  found  Moros  from 
Borneo  trading  with  the  Boholanos  and  also  with  the  Subanu  in  northern 
Mindanao.  The  distance  from  Bohol  to  Dapitan  is  about  60  miles 
and  easily  covered  by  native  sailing  craft.  The  Boholanos  still  con- 
tinue to  trade  with  the  Subanu  at  points  along  the  west  coast  of  the 
Zamboanga  peninsula  from  Dapitan  to  Sindangan,  and  along  the  north 
coast  from  Langaran  to  Dapitan.  Many  of  the  Boholanos  are  expert 
fishermen  and  sailors,  and  some  of  these  people  bring  their  fleets  of 
fishing  boats  into  Subanu  waters  and  gather  large  quantities  of  certain 
kinds  of  fish  known  as  hagon  and  culasi,  which  are  cured  and  packed  in 
salt  in  large  jars  called  tinajas. 

As  the  Subanu  generally  do  not  own  boats  and  are  not  accustomed 
to  the  sea,  they  do  not  know  how  to  fish,  and  as  they  greatly  enjoy  this 
class  of  food  they  find  it  convenient  to  barter  with  the  Boholanos  for 
both  fresh  and  cured  fish. 

The  mixture  of  Visayan  words  with  Moro  and  Subanu  is  due  to  the 
migration  of  the  Visayans  to  the  shores  of  northern  Mindanao,  begin- 
ning about  1600.  Pigafetta,  with  the  Magellan  expedition  in  152 1, 
refers  to  the  Moros  and  Visayans  as  engaged  in  trade  between  Cebu 
and  Mindanao. 

Mackinlay,  in  his  Hand-book  and  Grammar  of  the  Tagalog  Lan- 
guage, says  that  "the  Arabic  words  in  Tagalog,  which  are  hardly  more 
than  a  dozen  in  number,  evidently  came  in  with  the  Mohammedan 


12  THE   SUBANU. 

religion,  and  upon  the  extinction  of  that  faith  around  the  mouth  of  the 
Pasig  at  Manila,  all  but  a  few  words  fell  into  disuse.  Mohammedanism 
could  hardly  have  become  established  in  the  Tagalog  region  before  1450 
to  1500,  as  it  came  very  slowly  from  India  or  Arabia  to  Java,  and  thence 
by  way  of  Borneo  and  Sulu  to  the  Bay  of  Manila  and  the  Pasig  valley. 
Some  Arabic  words  were  adopted  by  the  Spanish  and  thus  brought  into 
the  vocabulary  of  the  Tagalog." 

SLOW  MODIFICATION  OF  CULTURE. 

Accustomed  as  they  are  by  nature  or  forced  by  necessity  to  occupy 
the  isolated  interior  of  the  country,  Combes  observed  their  cultural 
backwardness  by  referring  to  the — 

natural  barbarism  of  the  Subanuns,  living,  as  they  do,  in  high,  wild  country, 
with  as  little  sociability  as  animals,  and  having  their  houses  placed  a  league 
apart,  wherever  one  of  them  may  be  pleased  to  make  himself  a  settlement. 
They  lack  ci\dlization  as  well  as  human  intercourse,  for  they  are  so  opposed  by 
nature  to  intercommunication  that  they  grow  old  in  their  rancherias  without 
being  drawn  by  curiosity  from  their  settlements,  or  seeing  the  sea,  although 
some  of  them  live  within  sound  of  its  waves ;  and  if  necessity  or  gain  does  bring 
them  in  sight  of  its  shores,  they  are  contented  with  that,  without  seeking  to 
attempt  fortune  through  its  dangers. 

This  lack  of  inquisitiveness  by  the  Subanu  as  noted  by  Combes 
is  not  peculiar  to  them,  for  the  writer  has  had  occasion  to  observe  a 
marked  indifference  on  the  part  of  members  of  other  non- Christian 
tribes  in  Mindanao  (Kalibugans,  Samal  Lutangans,  Illanuns,  and  Magin- 
danaos)  to  passing  events  of  a  novel  nature.  The  well-known  custom 
of  Americans  and  Europeans  of  the  rustic  and  middle  classes  to  view 
strange  sights  with  ignorant  wonder  and  prolonged  attention  is  mark- 
edly absent  from  the  characteristics  of  the  wild  people  of  Mindanao, 
and  especially  from  the  Subanu.  Even  when  temporarily  visiting  the 
larger  coast  towns,  the  Subanu  give  strict  attention  to  the  business 
that  brings  them  there  and  usually,  after  its  completion,  make  early 
departure  for  their  homes. 

As  late  as  August,  191 1,  the  writer  observed  Subanu  (men  of  adult 
age)  visiting  the  rancheria  of  Sindangan,  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Zam- 
boanga  peninsula,  viewing  the  sea,  for  the  first  time  in  their  existence, 
with  considerable  equanimity.  Finally  one  of  the  men  rushed  forward 
into  the  gentle  surf  and  caught  up  with  his  two  hands  a  quantity  of 
the  sea  water,  carrying  it  to  his  mouth,  for  the  purpose  of  drinking  to 
quench  thirst,  when  he  was  seen  to  spit  it  out  and  to  back  away  from 
the  surf.  When  his  companions  advanced  to  learn  the  cause  they 
were  informed  by  him  that  the  water  was  umpet  (bitter)  and  unfit  to 
drink.  There  was  a  general  exclamation  of  surprise  and  disappoint- 
ment that  such  a  vast  body  of  water  as  Sindangan  Bay,  evidently  clean 
and  pure,  could  not  be  used  for  drinking  and  cooking.  It  was  explained 
to  them  that  the  alleged  bitterness  was  due  to  the  presence  of  salt  held 


SLOW  MODIFICATION   OF    CULTURE.  13 

in  solution  and  in  such  a  way  that  they  could  not  see  it  but  could  taste 
it.  The  explanation  was  continued  further  to  show  the  Subanu  how 
the  salt  cakes  were  made  by  the  Kalibugans,  at  certain  of  their  coast 
rancherias,  by  the  artificial  evaporation  of  sea  water.  For  years  these 
Subanu  had  been  trading  vegetables,  mountain  rice,  and  corn  in  exchange 
for  salt  cakes,  but  had  not  the  slightest  idea  how  the  cakes  were  made 
and  no  curiosity  to  find  the  source  of  supply.  The  Kalibugans  had 
learned  from  the  Chinese  traders  the  process  of  making  salt  cakes  from 
sea  water.  The  Subanu  are  very  fond  of  this  salt  {masin)  to  use  with 
their  food  and  are  always  ready  to  make  a  trade  for  it. 

In  spite  of  continued  contact  with  these  ahen  influences,  the 
Subanu  have  preserved  their  tribal  unity,  their  distinct  customs,  their 
dialect,  and  their  rehgion.  The  situation  is  a  remarkable  one,  consider- 
ing their  simple  patriarchal  form  of  government  and  lack  of  warlike 
instincts,  and  probably  they  could  not  have  withstood  the  aggressive 
control  of  outside  forces  but  for  the  fact  that  as  this  pressure  became 
more  and  more  persistent  the  Subanu  moved  farther  and  farther  into 
the  inaccessible  interior.  Here  they  found  vast  areas  of  rich  virgin 
soil,  wild  fruits  and  vegetables  in  abundance,  together  with  wild  fowl 
and  swine,  and  an  abundance  of  fresh-water  streams. 

The  strongest  external  influence  has  been  that  exerted  by  the 
Moros  (Mohammedans) ,  far  exceeding  the  powerful  efforts  made  by  the 
Catholic  Church  through  its  zealous  missionaries,  backed  up  by  gov- 
ernment forces.  As  a  result  of  the  Moro  influence,  a  new  tribal  name 
was  long  ago  given  those  Subanu  who  became  converts  to  Moham- 
medanism; such  converts  are  KaUbugans  (Kalibogans).  The  word  is 
made  up  of  the  Visaya  radical  lihug  or  lihog,  and  the  Magindanao-Sulu 
prefix  ka  and  suffix  an.  The  radical  signifies  "of  mixed  blood"  or  "of 
mixed  faith"  and  may  be  appUed  to  persons  and  animals;  thus,  the 
offspring  of  a  free  person  and  a  slave;  of  one  race  with  another;  of  a 
wild  animal  with  a  domesticated  one;  of  one  tribe  with  another;  or  a 
marriage  between  persons  of  different  rehgious  beliefs,  as  a  Subanu 
with  a  Moro,  or  a  Spaniard  with  a  native.  The  particles  ka  and  an  are 
used  to  form  derivative  nouns,  and  in  this  construction  the  name  Kali- 
bugan signifies  a  person  of  mixed  Subanu  and  Moro  blood.  In  marriages 
of  this  combination  the  Subanu  invariably  becomes  a  convert  to  Islam- 
ism;  the  reverse  has  never  been  reported.  Once  a  Mohammedan, 
always  so, is  the  historical  record  of  this  faith  throughout  the  world. 

The  Subanu  who  becomes  a  Kalibugan  is  at  once  freed  from  the 
stigma  of  being  considered  an  infidel  and  is  established  upon  a  footing 
of  friendliness  and  of  freedom  from  many  annoyances  and  burdens 
which  the  Moros  have  always  placed  upon  the  Subanu,  including  peon- 
age and  slavery.  Having  become  a  KaUbugan,  the  Subanu  usually 
abandons  the  hills  and  becomes  a  coast  dweller.  Therefore  the  Kali- 
bugan villages  are  found  on  the  coast  line  of  the  Subanu  country. 


14  THEJ   SUBANU. 

Christie  says  (1909)  of  the  KaHbugans: 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  many  of  the  people  included  under  this  name  are  of 
pure  Subanu  blood  (converts  to  Mohammedanism).  Personal  observation 
of  many  of  them  has  convinced  me  that  in  most  of  them  the  Subanun  strain  is 
much  stronger  than  the  Samal,  the  Ilanun,  or  the  Magindanan.  Indeed  the 
majority  of  Kalibugan  settlements  are  of  Subanun  speech,  though  close  inter- 
course with  Moro  groups  has  led  to  the  adoption  of  some  foreign  words;  the 
economic  life  is  Subanun,  the  Kalibugan  making  a  living  by  agriculture  of  the 
Kaingin  or  forest-clearing  type.  Many  Kalibugans  in  fact  are  merely  Suban- 
uns  converted  to  Mohammedanism  and  mark  the  line  of  contact  of  Subanun 
culture  with  Islam,  just  as  the  "new  Christians"  mark  that  with  Christianity. 

Kalibugan  settlements  are  started  usually  by  the  marriage  of  some 
Samal,  Ilanun,  or  Magindanao  fisherman  or  trader  with  one  or  more 
Subanu  girls.  This  necessitates  conversion  on  their  part,  and  the 
family  or  families,  if  there  are  several  Moros,  serve  as  the  nucleus  of  a 
Mohammedan  community.  Mohammedanism  presents  itself  to  the 
Subanu  with  the  prestige  of  a  superior  civilization,  and  first  the  relatives 
of  the  Subanu  wives  of  Moros  and  then  other  neighboring  Subanu  are 
attracted  to  the  Mohammedan  religion  and  culture.  For  a  long  time 
the  customs  and  beliefs  of  such  a  community  are  mixed  (the  writer  has 
seen  Pagan  religious  ceremonies  performed  in  Kalibugan  villages),  but 
the  drift  is  constantly  toward  complete  assimilation  by  the  Moro  cul- 
ture. In  the  Kalibugan  settlements  of  to-day  we  see  going  on  before 
our  eyes  the  process  which  constituted  the  various  Moro  tribes  of  Min- 
danao. An  account  of  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  Kalibugan  villages 
of  the  peninsula  (Subanu  country)  might  correctly  be  entitled,  "How 
a  Moro  tribe  is  made." 

I  have  often  asked  the  natives,  both  Christian  and  non-Christian, 
to  explain  the  difference  between  a  Kalibugan  and  a  Subanu.  A  native 
of  the  latter  tribe  has  generally  avoided  a  reply,  conveying  an  impres- 
sion to  me  that  he  strongly  disapproved  of  the  apostasy  of  his  fellow 
tribesman.  When  an  explanation  came  it  was  usually  attended  with  a 
contemptuous  expression  of  countenance  or  of  words.  I  have  observed 
instances  of  this  contempt  exhibited  by  Moros,  in  place  of  satisfaction 
and  pleasure  that  a  convert  had  been  gained  to  Islam.  Even  among 
these  savage  people  a  backslider  loses  caste  and  seldom  regains  his 
former  status  among  the  members  of  his  new  organization  and  faith. 
From  a  respected  Subanu  the  backslider  does  not  become  an  equally 
respected  Moro  or  Mohammedan.  He  is  suspected  by  the  Moros  as  not 
being  sincere,  and  is  an  outcast  from  his  maternal  tribe,  the  Subanu. 

Therefore  these  people,  these  apostates,  have  gathered  together 
in  separate  villages  where  they  have  gradually  acquired  the  distinctive 
name  of  Kalibugans.  The  name  is  sometimes  used  as  a  term  of 
reproach  when  referring  to  bad  conduct  or  the  commission  of  a  crim- 
inal act.  Kalibugans  generally  lead  a  wretched  existence  and  their 
settlements  are  usually  the  abode  of  poverty,  distress,  and  illness. 


THE   INDUSTRIAI,   LIFE).  15 

The  nearest  relatives  among  the  Subanu  sometimes  come  to  the 
reUef  of  their  apostate  KaUbugans  when  death  is  about  to  claim  them, 
or  some  enemy  is  seeking  their  undoing,  or  the  strong  arm  of  the  law  is 
reaching  out  to  inflict  punishment  for  misdeeds. 

A  Kalibugan  carries  his  record  with  him  in  his  name  and  in  his 
affiliations.  Among  the  various  Pagan  and  Moro  tribes  of  the  pan- 
handle of  Mindanao,  in  the  Sulu  Archipelago  and  in  the  Basilan  group, 
the  Kalibugan  is  generally  a  vagabond ;  the  door  of  welcome  and  pros- 
perity seems  closed  to  him  among  all  classes  of  the  native  people.  The 
Moros  having  general  supervision  over  Kalibugan  settlements  provide 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  Mohammedan  hierarchy  therein  and  thus 
hold  these  apostate  Subanu  in  subjection  and  in  obedience  to  the  faith. 
Religious  appointments  are  therefore  held  by  Kalibugans,  and  in 
this  manner  they  can  be  employed  to  proselytize  among  the  heathen 

Subanu. 

THE  INDUSTRIAL  LIFE. 

The  very  name  Subanu  constitutes  the  possessor  thereof  a  farmer.* 
His  life  is  spent  in  the  fields  and  forests.  His  sustenance  is  drawn  from 
the  earth  by  primitive  agricultural  methods.  He  seeks  the  isolated 
and  wildest  portions  of  the  interior  and  relies  upon  his  strength  and 
native  ingenuity  to  cope  with  nature  and  wring  from  it  a  means  of  living 
for  himself  and  his  family. 

The  method  of  cultivation  pursued  by  the  Subanu  is  known  as  the 
kaingin  system.  It  consists  of  clearing  a  piece  of  forest  and  planting 
the  land  by  the  use  of  a  sharpened  stick  to  make  holes  in  the  ground  to 
receive  the  seed.  The  ground  is  not  plowed,  spaded,  or  harrowed,  and 
after  the  second  season  is  usually  abandoned  for  a  new  clearing.  Agri- 
cultural development  is  seriously  retarded  by  want  of  proper  methods, 
the  lack  of  efficient  labor,  and  the  varying  prices  of  the  staple  products. 
The  native  planter  can  contend  with  low  prices  and  insufficient  and 
inefficient  labor  with  much  better  success  than  can  the  Americans  and 
Europeans  likewise  engaged.  The  latter  have  not  only  more  expensive 
methods  of  living,  but  their  cost  of  operating  plantations  is  much 
greater.  The  kaingin  method  of  farming  involves  a  great  waste  of 
labor  and  materials  and  must  be  eventually  interdicted  by  appropriate 
laws,  rigidly  enforced.  Under  section  25  of  Act  No.  1 148  of  the  Philip- 
pine Commission: 

The  cutting,  clearing,  or  destroying  of  the  public  forests  or  the  forest 
reserves,  or  any  part  thereof,  for  the  purpose  of  making  kaingins,  without 
lawful  authority,  is  hereby  prohibited.  And  whoever,  in  violation  of  this  pro- 
vision, shall  cut,  clear,  or  destroy  the  same,  for  such  purpose,  or  shall  wilfully 
or  negligently  set  fire  thereto,  shall,  upon  conviction  by  a  court  of  competent 
jurisdiction,  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  a  sum  equivalent  to  twice  the 
regular  government  charge  upon  the  timber  so  cut,  cleared,  or  destroyed,  and, 

*The  sole  instance  of  the  word  in  the  accompanying  vocabulary  is  somoctoloan  noc 
subanon,  with  the  definition  "peasant." — W.  C. 


16  THE   SUBANU. 

in  addition  thereto  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding  thirty  days,  in  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  court. 

The  author  has  held  many  meetings  with  the  mountain  people, 
including  both  Christians  and  non-Christians,  and  has  explained  to 
them  the  great  waste  attendant  upon  the  practice  of  the  kaingin 
method  of  agriculture.  The  cleared  land  is  not  cultivated  in  any  sense, 
but  only  planted  between  the  stumps.  This  method  may  be  briefly 
described  in  its  regular  order  of  development  as  follows : 

1.  Ruthless  cutting  of  timber,  saving  not  even  desirable  trees  for  shade. 

2.  Leaving  the  timber,  good  and  bad,  where  it  falls  until  dry  enough  to  burn. 

3.  Indiscriminate  burning  of  all  fallen  timber,  with  no  effort  to  preserve 
any  portion  of  it  for  lumber  or  for  building  purposes. 

4.  No  efforts  to  improve  the  land  by  removing  stumps,  partially  bimied 
timber,  or  stones. 

5.  The  land  thus  cleared  is  planted  to  rice,  corn,  camotes,  ubi,  gabi,  tobacco, 
vegetables,  buyo,  and  occasionally  some  fruit  like  bananas  and  papayas.  Seed 
is  placed  in  small  holes  made  with  sharpened  sticks;  tubers,  cuttings,  and 
young  plants  are  transplanted. 

6.  The  soil  is  moist,  covered  with  rich  humus,  very  fertile  and  easily 
cultivated,  but  soon  dries  out  by  reason  of  the  absence  of  all  shade,  although 
the  ashes  and  humus  afford  considerable  protection  from  the  burning  rays  of 
the  sun  and  the  drying  effect  of  the  winds. 

7.  After  planting,  the  clearing  is  generally  neglected.  If  the  seeds  germi- 
nate, the  plants  take  care  of  themselves.  The  weeds  and  second  tree  growth 
have  an  equal  chance  with  the  crops. 

8.  The  crops  receive  attention  only  to  prevent  their  destruction  by 
monkeys,  rats,  mice,  wild  hogs,  wild  fowl,  deer,  and  insect  pests. 

9.  Crops  are  harvested  when  mature  and  the  surplus,  over  and  above  that 
required  for  daily  consumption,  is  stored  in  large  cylindrical  baskets,  in  size 
about  5  by  10  feet,  open  at  both  ends,  the  lower  end  resting  on  a  platform 
raised  about  4  feet  above  the  ground.  These  granaries  are  called  lulu  tongalang 
and  consist  of  several  baskets  placed  side  by  side  and  covered  over  with  a  grass 
or  nipa  shed.  The  baskets  are  usually  made  from  the  split  stalks  of  the  bagaki 
rattan,  woven  into  a  large  mat  of  little  squares;  when  of  the  required  dimen- 
sions, this  is  rolled  into  the  cylindrical  basket  and  the  two  ends  fastened 
together  with  strips  of  bejuco  rattan.  These  baskets  are  sometimes  made 
from  the  inner  bark  of  the  bakmvan  tree  or  from  the  dried  fronds  of  the  areca 
palm. 

10.  This  terminates  the  first  year  of  the  kaingin  method  of  agriculture  as 
followed  by  the  Subanu.  In  beginning  the  second  year  an  effort  is  made  to 
burn  off  the  grass,  weeds,  and  second  tree  growth  that  have  made  great  head- 
way during  the  progress  of  the  first  year's  crops.  The  burning  must  be  done 
during  the  dry  period  and  is  generally  only  partially  successful,  but  the  ashes 
mulch  the  soil  and  preserve  the  moisture  therein. 

1 1 .  There  is  no  plowing  or  other  form  of  upturning  of  the  soil.  The  seeds 
are  placed  in  holes  made  by  a  sharpened  stick,  as  at  the  beginning  of  the  first 
year,  but  they  do  not  germinate  as  successfully  as  when  the  land  is  cleaner 
and  more  moist.  The  refuse  growth  of  the  first  year  has  diminished  the 
fertility  of  the  soil. 

12.  It  now  becomes  a  question  of  the  survival  of  the  strongest — crops, 
weeds,  or  second  tree  growth.  The  same  protection  as  during  the  first  year 
must  be  exercised  against  monkeys,  wild  hogs,  rats,  mice,  deer,  and  insects. 


THE   INDUSTRIAL  LIFE.  17 

13.  If  the  crops  survive  against  all  obstacles,  harvesting  follows,  but  with 
greater  difl5culty  than  in  the  first  year,  owing  to  the  established  headway  of 
the  grass,  weeds,  and  second  growth.  The  surplus  crops  are  stored  at  the 
close  of  the  second  year  of  the  kaingin  cultivation. 

14.  At  the  beginning  of  the  third  year  the  old  kaingin  is  abandoned  if  the 
cogon  grass  shows  strong  development  and  the  second  tree  growth  has  made 
vigorous  headway.  A  new  kaingin  is  now  sought,  the  forest  cut  down  and 
burned,  and  the  same  process  of  cultivation  and  harvesting  followed  as  in  the 
first  and  second  years. 

15.  If  the  old  kaingin  is  cultivated  for  the  third  and  fourth  years  the  same 
method  is  observed  as  in  the  first  and  second  years,  but  with  diminishing  suc- 
cess, by  reason  of  the  lack  of  proper  tillage. 

16.  The  Subanu  justifies  the  kaingin  method  of  agriculture  on  the  basis 
of  ignorance,  poverty,  lack  of  proper  implements,  and  the  absence  of  working 
animals.  There  must  also  be  added  the  lack  of  incentive  to  improve,  because 
of  the  exploitation  of  these  hill  people  by  the  coast  dwellers.  Whenever  the 
former  gave  signs  of  prosperity,  the  latter  formed  and  finally  executed  schemes 
to  gain  the  entire  surplus  of  the  hill  people.  To  rid  themselves,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, from  these  parasites,  the  Subanu  moved  farther  inland  and  sought  the 
most  inaccessible  places  for  their  temporary  houses. 

17.  The  kaingin  farmer  can  not  successfully  develop  the  cogon  clearing, 
his  only  implements  being  the  pes  (chopping  knife),  with  a  blade  about  14 
inches  long  and  with  a  round  or  square  head;  the  hilamon  (digging  knife), 
smaller  than  the  pes;  the  gwasay  (grubbing  knife  and  adze),  a  sort  of  axe  with  a 
blade  about  13  inches  long  and  about  5  inches  wide  at  the  cutting  edge,  and 
tapering  back  to  about  an  inch  at  the  head.  This  knife  is  fastened  in  a  handle 
corresponding  in  form  and  size  to  that  used  with  the  American  axe.  For  har- 
vesting rice  and  digging  roots  and  tubers  smaller  knives  of  various  shapes 
are  used. 

18.  Cogon  grass  is  a  rapidly  growing  plant  of  tough  fiber  and  sometimes 
reaches  a  height  of  10  to  12  feet.  When  thrown  down  by  the  wind  and  rain 
it  forms  an  impenetrable,  tangled  mass  which  will  yield  only  to  the  knife  and 
fire.  When  young  and  about  10  inches  high  the  grass  is  tender  and  excellent 
for  grazing.  When  18  inches  to  2  feet  it  may  be  cut  for  cattle  fodder.  When 
5  to  8  feet  in  height  the  grass  is  cut  for  thatching,  especially  when  the  nipa 
palm  can  not  be  obtained. 

The  kaingin  method  of  farming  has  deforested  many  thousands 
of  acres  of  the  finest  timber  in  the  Subanu  country  and  has  been  very 
destructive  of  such  natural  resources.  The  practice  still  prevails  to  a 
large  extent,  both  in  and  out  of  the  Subanu  territory.  The  law  pro- 
hibiting the  system  is  inefiective  for  want  of  sufficient  forestry  inspectors 
and  lack  of  funds  to  employ  them.  It  is  evident  that  this  system  is 
not  profitable  either  to  the  government  or  to  the  hill  people,  nor  is  it  the 
best  that  can  be  done  by  the  government  for  the  welfare  of  these  people. 
The  Public  Law  Act  No.  926,  as  amended  by  No.  979  of  the  Philippine 
Commission,  provides  a  homestead  (free  land)  of  40  acres  for  natives 
of  the  islands.  The  conditions  under  which  this  presentation  is  made 
by  the  government  involve  many  complications  and  delays  connected 
with  the  cadastral  survey  of  the  land,  in  order  to  secure  a  reliable  title  in 
the  name  of  the  native,  who  stands  in  urgent  need  of  a  permanent  home 
and  a  greater  degree  of  prosperity  than  he  has  ever  before  possessed. 


18  THE   SUBANU. 

Placing  the  wandering  Christians,  Moros,  and  Pagans  permanently 
upon  homesteads  by  the  government  will  do  more  to  civilize  them  and 
add  to  their  prosperity  and  that  of  the  government  than  any  other 
measure  that  can  be  undertaken  for  the  development  of  these  dependent 
people.  The  best  method  for  this  work  requires  most  careful  study  and 
due  consideration  of  all  of  the  factors  entering  into  the  solution  of  the 
problem — such,  for  example,  are  the  tribal  relations,  tribal  customs, 
religious  peculiarities,  prescriptive  land  titles,  acquired  rights,  surrender 
of  weapons  and  interdiction  of  their  use,  the  improvement  of  trails,  the 
establishment  of  government  exchanges  and  trading  stores,  the  opera- 
tion of  model  tribal  ward  farms,  and  the  harmonizing  of  all  differences 
between  the  hill  people  and  the  coast  dwellers  or  shore  people. 

The  dependent  peoples  of  the  various  Moro  and  Pagan  tribes  are 
wards  of  the  government  and  must  receive  instruction  and  supervision 
carried  out  by  government  officials  in  the  most  faithful  and  patient 
manner.  They  must  be  taught  the  advantages  of  a  permanent  home, 
the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  legal  possession  of  land,  its  proper 
cultivation,  the  maintenance  and  education  of  a  family,  the  making  of 
an  honest  living,  respect  for  the  rights  of  others,  and  obedience  to  the 
law.  As  these  people  must  be  developed  along  industrial  lines,  even 
before  school  training  is  provided  for  to  any  considerable  extent,  it  is 
imperative  that  the  government  devise  ways  and  means  for  promoting 
and  maintaining  agriculture,  trade,  and  commerce  among  them,  thus 
bringing  their  labor  and  the  products  of  their  labor  to  the  markets  of 
the  world.  To  this  end  the  writer  has  great  faith  in  the  exchanges, 
trading  stores,  and  tribal  ward  farms  organized  by  him  in  1904  and  1906, 
while  governor  of  the  District  of  Zamboanga. 

_  The  Subanu  cultivate  principally  mountain  rice,  corn,  camote, 
and  tobacco.  Next  to  rice  their  main  dependence  for  food  is  upon  the 
camote  (sweet  potato  or  yam).  Two  other  tubers  or  esculent  roots 
are  grown  for  food,  known  as  gabi  (gabe)  and  ubi  (ube).*  Both  are 
cultivated  like  the  potato  and  must  be  thoroughly  boiled  in  order  to 
destroy  their  poisonous  constituent  before  being  used  for  food.  The 
camote,  gabi,  and  ubi  are  also  made  into  preserves  and  sweetmeats; 
they  are  roasted  as  well  as  boiled.  Gabi  and  ubi  throw  up  stalks  with 
large  leaves,  while  the  native  camote  produces  a  running  vine  that 

*Lack  of  botanical  identification  of  these  vegetables  is  quite  sufficient  complication  in 
itself;  the  confusion  is  increased  by  the  doubtful  English  names  of  camote.  The  yam  is 
properly  one  of  several  species  of  Dioscorea,  the  sweet  potato  Batatas  edulis;  the  two  articles 
of  food  are  in  no  likelihood  of  being  confused.  But  in  the  United  States,  more  particularly 
in  the  South,  yam  is  frequently  applied  to  the  sweet  potato.  I  infer  that  here  we  are  under 
the  influence  of  this  dialectic  usage.  The  camote,  so  far  as  the  philological  record  may 
instruct  us,  is  clearly  Batatas.  The  name  was  transported  by  the  galleons  from  Acapulco  to 
Manila,  for  it  is  the  Aztec  camotl  ibericized;  the  possibility  that  in  yet  more  distant  and 
far  less  readily  comprehensible  transport  camotl  of  Mexico  has  become  kumara  of  Polynesia 
is  attractive  but  wide  of  the  present  inquiry.  The  true  Dioscorea  yam  is  here  identifiable 
as  uhi,  the  Polynesian  ufi.  '  The  gabi  of  this  text  is  undoubtedly  the  Polynesian  kape,  the 
bitter  giant  taro,  Colocasia. — W.  C. 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   LIFE.  19 

covers  the  ground  with  a  mass  of  leaves  that  are  sometimes  boiled  and 
used  as  greens.  The  Subanu  occasionally  cultivate  a  tuber  called 
camote-cahoy  (camoting-cahoy,  guccu  or  cassava),  whose  fecula  is  known 
as  tapioca.  In  preparing  the  root  for  food  it  is  necessary  to  grate,  wash, 
and  press  it  so  as  to  express  the  juice.  The  remaining  material  is  the 
flour  or  tapioca,  which  is  white  or  yellowish-white  in  color,  sweetish  in 
taste,  and  somewhat  insipid.  It  is  much  valued  in  medicine  on  account 
of  its  digestibility  and  is  often  used  as  food  for  children  and  sick  people. 
Camote-cahoy  grows  above  ground  as  a  shrub,  having  a  single  stalk  4 
to  6  feet  in  height,  with  a  tuft  of  succulent  leaves  at  the  top. 

When  the  rice  crop  fails  the  Subanu  make  use  of  buri  and  lumbia  or 
lumbay.  Both  belong  to  the  palm  family  and  grow  to  trees  of  large 
size,  topped  with  large  fan-like  leaves,  all  gathered  at  the  apex  of  the 
tree,  like  the  coconut  palm.  The  interior  of  the  entire  trunk  of  these 
trees  forms  a  starchy  flour  which  is  used  for  food  and  is  of  great  nutri- 
tive value.  The  bagsang  palm  is  used  in  a  similar  manner,  and  also  the 
pagahan  and  canong  palms,  each  of  which  supplies  a  starchy  flour  or 
kind  of  sago  that  forms  an  excellent  article  of  food.  The  Subanu  do 
not  cultivate  any  of  these  sago  palms,  but  search  for  them  in  the  forests, 
especially  along  the  streams,  and  mark  the  localities  so  that  when  this 
class  of  food  is  required  the  trees  can  be  found  and  converted  into  flour. 

When  cultivated  crops  entirely  fail  because  of  droughts  and  the 
ravages  of  insect  pests,  the  Subanu  must  resort  to  the  several  varieties 
of  the  sago  palm  and  to  certain  wild  edible  roots  for  food.  In  some 
localities  they  cultivate  an  excellent  squash,  egg-plant,  and  melon.  To 
some  extent  bananas,  papayas,  pineapples,  nangcas,  and  lanzones  are 
cultivated  for  fruit.  There  are  several  varieties  of  bananas  in  the 
Subanu  country,  some  of  which  are  eaten  raw,  while  others  must  be 
cooked  to  prepare  them  for  food.  Pedro  Delgado  enumerates  and 
describes  57  varieties  of  bananas  grown  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  vary- 
ing greatly  in  form  and  taste,  and  all  available  for  food. 

Fences  are  made  of  split  bamboo  and  small  poles  about  the  size  of 
the  thumb.  The  poles  are  set  upright  in  the  ground  and  fastened 
together  at  the  top  and  midway  by  interlacing  of  tough  roots  (baging) 
or  with  whole  bejuco  rattans.  The  bamboo  fences  are  flimsily  made; 
sometimes  only  rattan  strands  are  used  with  neither  posts  nor  other  sup- 
ports. The  more  civilized  Subanu  employ  fence-like  hedges  of  a  rapidly 
growing  tree,  set  in  the  ground  as  stakes  as  close  together  as  possible ; 
these  stakes  never  fail  to  take  root.  When  6  to  8  feet  high  they  are 
lopped  off  and  interlaced  with  split  rattans. 

To  a  limited  extent  the  Subanu  cultivate  coconuts  and  employ  the 
nuts  for  food  and  for  trade.  Hemp  (abaca)  is  grown  and  the  fiber  used 
for  rope  and  for  weaving  cloth,  the  surplus  being  exchanged  in  the  mar- 
kets for  manufactured  articles.  From  the  forests  the  Subanu  gather 
gutta-percha,  almaciga,  bulitic,  and  beeswax,  all  used  in  trade. 


20  THE   SUBANU. 

As  might  be  expected,  these  people  are  expert  woodsmen  and  pos- 
sess an  acute  sense  of  locaUty,  which  enables  them  to  travel  the  trackless 
forests  and  thick  swamps  of  the  tropical  jungles  without  losing  their 
way.  They  are  therefore  trustworthy  and  tireless  guides  and,  being 
accustomed  to  Hving  on  wild  fruit  and  roots,  in  emergency  can  endure 
long  journeys  with  the  minimum  food  supply. 

To  supplement  the  use  of  tobacco  and  for  chewing  purposes  the 
Subanu  cultivate  the  areca  palm  which  produces  the  favorite  betel  nut, 
the  pit  of  which  is  overlaid  with  a  thick  greenish-colored  meat  that  is 
spHt  into  sections  for  chewing.  The  nut  is  somewhat  smaller  than  the 
pecan  and  retains  its  green  color  when  mature.  In  connection  with  this 
nut  there  is  used  the  buyo  leaf,  taken  from  the  buyo  plant  cultivated 
like  hops  and  trained  upon  poles  or  low-growing  trees.  The  entire 
chewing  quid  is  composed  of  a  small  leaf  of  tobacco,  a  section  of  betel- 
nut,  one  buyo  leaf,  and  a  small  quantity  of  paste  made  of  shell  lime  and 
ginger  root  mixed  sometimes  with  coconut  oil  and  sometimes  with 
water.  Women  generally  omit  the  tobacco,  as  do  the  Christian  FiU- 
pinos.  The  Moros  and  Pagans  always  use  the  tobacco  in  this  combina- 
tion. This  root  gives  the  dark-red  color  to  the  spittle,  lips,  and  teeth 
while  chewing,  which  makes  the  habit  so  disgusting  to  foreigners.  When 
he  can  afford  it  the  Subanu  purchases,  usually  from  the  Chinese  trader, 
a  few  pieces  (squares  about  the  size  of  loaf  sugar)  of  gambler  (terra 
japonica)  for  mixture  with  the  other  parts  of  the  chewing  quid.  Gam- 
bier  acts  as  an  astringent,  heals  mouth  sores,  reduces  the  sensitiveness 
of  filed  teeth,  and  heightens  the  dark-red  color  of  the  spittle.  This 
remarkable  combination  for  chewing  is  placed  in  a  betel-nut  box,  which 
may  be  suspended  from  the  shoulder,  carried  in  a  bag  or  basket  at  the 
side,  Hke  a  haversack,  or  in  a  belt  or  sash  tied  about  the  waist.  The 
betel-nut  quid  is  considered  more  useful  than  food  when  severe  exertion 
becomes  necessary,  and  all  classes  of  natives  resort  to  its  use.  The 
habit  when  once  formed  is  difficult  to  abandon,  and  in  that  respect  is 
akin  to  the  opium  habit,  but  is  not  by  any  means  so  deleterious  and 
degrading  to  the  human  system. 

The  Subanu  cultivate  the  areca  palm,  the  buyo  plant,  tobacco,  and 
ginger  root.  The  lime  is  obtained  from  the  burning  of  sea  shells,  which 
is  generally  done  by  Kalibugans  and  Moros,  and  therefore  must  be 
obtained  from  them  as  a  matter  of  trading.  When  for  any  purpose  it  is 
desired  to  employ  Subanu  as  guides  or  for  other  form  of  labor,  their 
attitude  toward  the  work  and  their  cheerfulness  and  efficiency  in  per- 
forming it  will  be  greatly  improved  and  enhanced  by  supplying  them 
beforehand  with  mountain  rice  and  the  materials  for  the  betel-nut 
chewing  quid. 

Subanu  are  very  fond  of  smoking  a  sort  of  cigarette  made  of  native 
leaf-tobacco  and  the  soft  inner  husk  of  the  corn.  The  tobacco  is 
wrapped  within  this  husk  and  the  whole  is  so  folded  as  to  take  the  shape 


CONSTRUCTION  AND   LOCATION   OF   HOUSES.  21 

of  a  cornucopia;  the  small  end  is  placed  in  the  mouth  when  smoking. 
In  the  absence  of  corn  husks,  dried  banana  leaves  or  the  nipa  frond  are 
used  as  wrappers  for  cigarette  smoking. 

When  out  of  native  leaf-tobacco,  if  they  can  afford  the  luxury, 
Subanu  will  purchase,  from  abulante  traders,  the  famous  Chinese  him 
tobacco  that  so  delights  the  palate  of  the  non-Christians  of  the  ISIoro 
Province.  In  order  properly  to  control  the  importation  of  this  tobacco 
in  that  province  and  prevent  smuggling,  the  Legislative  Council  enacted 
two  laws  in  March  and  April,  1906,  which  provide  that  "each  distrib- 
uting agent  shall  sell  the  tobacco  delivered  to  him  to  Moros  and  Pagans, 
in  quantities  of  not  to  exceed  ten  pounds,  to  any  individual  during  a 
calendar  month  for  cash,  at  a  price  fixed  by  the  District  Secretary." 

The  Subanu  are  neither  boatmen  nor  fishermen,  and  whenever  it 
becomes  necessary  for  them  to  make  journeys  by  water  they  seek  the 
assistance  of  their  Kalibugan  relatives  who  have  become  coast  dwellers, 
or  of  some  friendly  Moros  or  Filipinos.  These  sea  trips  are  very  seldom 
taken  and  only  resorted  to  in  case  of  emergency  or  when  travel  by  land 
is  impossible.  Although  vegetarians  in  their  diet,  Subanu  will  eat 
fish,  fowl,  and  the  meat  of  the  wild  hog  and  deer  when  their  crops  have 
failed  or  the  supplies  stored  have  run  low;  in  some  locaUties  in  recent 
years  they  have  raised  goats  and  cattle  for  food,  using  the  latter  for 
work  also. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  LOCATION  OF  HOUSES. 

With  few  exceptions  the  houses  of  the  Subanu  are  of  temporary 
construction,  due  to  their  wandering  habits,  to  the  kaingin  farming, 
and  to  raids  and  exploitation  by  the  shore  people.  Native  materials 
are  used  with  no  attempt  at  ornamentation  and  very  little  regard  for 
personal  comfort.  No  matter  what  the  size,  the  house  consists  of  but 
one  room  which  may  be  temporarily  subdivided  into  apartments  by 
hanging  mats  and  screens.  There  are  no  windows  as  such.  Light  is 
admitted  by  the  one  or  more  doorways  and  through  numerous  openings 
in  the  imperfect  walls  and  roof.  The  floor  is  elevated  above  the  ground 
from  3  to  30  feet,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  kind  of  building 
material  available,  the  danger  from  predatory  animals,  and  the  near- 
ness and  character  of  the  shore  people.  The  building  is  supported  upon 
numerous  poles  of  varying  size,  according  to  the  convenience  of  obtain- 
ing the  material.  Where  a  more  permanent  structure  is  desired,  heavy 
logs  are  used  for  uprights.  No  matter  how  many  doorways  may  be 
provided,  entrance  to  the  house  is  restricted  to  one  only.  This  is  a 
matter  of  precaution.  Sometimes  a  pole  stairway  with  steps  is  provided, 
but  usually  only  a  single  pole  with  notches  cut  in  it,  which  can  be  used 
conveniently  and  safely  only  by  a  person  with  bare  feet.  Boys  and 
girls  run  freely  up  and  down  these  notched  poles ;  older  persons  support 
themselves  by  their  hands  when  on  the  ladders.     Men  and  women 


22  THE  SUBANU. 

alike  enter  the  house  from  the  ladders  facing  inward;  they  come  out 
backward  and  descend  the  notched  pole  in  the  same  position;  but 
where  the  house  has  a  ladder  with  treads  they  come  out  and  descend 
forward. 

The  Subanu  seldom  build  their  houses  in  trees,  except  in  the  case  of 
small  watch  towers  used  by  guards  for  protecting  the  crops  from  wild 
animals  and  birds. 

The  materials  for  thatching  are  the  leaves  of  the  nipa  palm,  the 
coconut  palm,  and  cogon  grass.  For  the  walls,  bagaki  rattan  is  used 
when  available  and  in  its  absence  any  of  the  thatch  materials  are 
employed.  The  floor  is  always  open;  that  is,  composed  of  strips  of 
palma  brava,  split  bamboo,  or  small  tangal  poles,  laid  about  an  inch 
apart  and  bound  to  the  stringers  or  joists  with  split  bejuco  rattan. 
The  open  floor  permits  of  the  free  circulation  of  air  and  of  the  passing  of 
all  refuse  to  the  ground  below.  This  open  floor  is  of  great  economic 
importance  to  the  Subanu  and  is  generally  used  by  all  classes  of  Moros 
and  Pagans  and  by  many  Filipinos.  The  ground  underneath  the  house 
becomes  a  refuse  heap  where  the  domestic  animals  of  the  owner  search 
for  food  and  find  a  place  of  refuge  from  the  sun  and  rain.  When  in  the 
course  of  time  this  pile  of  waste  rises  near  the  floor,  the  Subanu  owner 
may  abandon  his  house  and  erect  another  or,  if  not  already  at  a  consider- 
able height,  decide  to  raise  the  building  some  5  feet  or  more.  It  never 
occurs  to  this  child  of  the  forest  and  hills  that  the  refuse  can  be  removed  \ 
from  time  to  time  and  destroyed  by  fire,  as  an  economic  and  sanitary  \ 
project  of  the  first  importance.  Houses  are  built  near  fresh  water  if  ^ 
possible,  provided  isolation  and  security  can  be  obtained. 

The  Subanu  are  a  peace-loving  people.  They  love  the  solitude 
and  quiet  of  undisturbed  natural  surroundings.  So  long  and  persist- 
ently have  they  been  hunted  by  the  raiding  Moros  and  FiHpinos  that 
they  seek  seclusion  and  usually  estabUsh  their  houses  where  it  is  most 
difficult  to  gain  an  approach  to  them — for  example,  near  the  bottom  of 
a  deep  gulch  or  upon  the  projecting  point  of  some  hill  or  on  some  moun- 
tain peak.  From  a  nearby  elevation  one  may  catch  a  glimpse  of  the 
shack  through  the  swaying  foliage  and  then  search  for  hours  to  find  the 
blind  trail  leading  to  it. 

The  safe  placing  of  the  home  is  of  prime  importance  and  after 
that  comes  the  location  of  the  kaingin  farm.  They  are  not  often  near 
together,  since  fertile  land  does  not  always  coincide  with  a  favorable 
spot  for  the  protection  of  the  house.  In  the  event  of  a  wide  distance 
between  the  house  and  the  farm  the  Subanu  usually  makes  a  small 
planting  about  the  former;  about  the  more  or  less  permanent  home 
he  may  erect  small  shacks  for  the  storage  of  harvested  crops,  although 
in  most  instances  some  portion  of  the  house  is  used  for  that  purpose. 
If  the  granary  is  placed  under  the  house  that  section  is  protected  from 
the  receipt  of  waste  material  passed  through  the  open  floor. 


MANUFACTURES.  23 

The  furnishings  of  the  house  are  usually  of  the  barest  necessities, 
especially  where  the  building  has  been  placed  in  an  exposed  location  and 
the  occupants  may  be  interrupted  by  visits  from  strangers.  The  cook- 
ing may  be  done  on  the  ground  and  the  food  carried  into  the  house  for 
eating,  or  the  women  may  employ  the  small  burned-clay  stove  in  the 
house  and  prepare  the  food  on  the  floor.  No  chairs  or  stools  are  used. 
When  resting  the  members  of  the  family  squat  upon  their  haunches  and 
can  easily  maintain  this  position  for  hours.  The  posture  in  sitting  is 
that  of  a  squat  on  the  full  soles  with  the  buttocks  just  clear  of  the  ground 
or  floor,  knees  and  calves  apart  and  the  arms  resting  on  the  knees. 
When  the  buttocks  rest  upon  the  floor  the  calves  are  approximated 
to  the  thighs  and  the  arms  are  brought  forward  over  the  knees.  When 
the  posture  is  free  and  there  is  no  rest  for  the  back  the  body  incUnes 
forward  on  the  knees.  This  posture  is  the  same  for  men,  women,  and 
children.  In  general  it  is  observed  that  the  women  maintain  a  wider 
angle  between  the  legs  when  sitting  and  more  frequently  support  the 
back.  The  family  sleep  on  the  floor,  using  grass  or  rattan  mats  and 
pillows  made  from  tree  cotton  (kapok). 

The  women  boil  rice  between  banana  leaves  in  an  earthenware 
vessel,  or  in  an  iron  pot  when  it  can  be  obtained.  One  leaf  section  is 
placed  at  the  bottom  and  the  other  is  used  as  a  cover.  When  the  water 
boils  away,  more  is  added  until  the  rice  is  thoroughly  cooked. 

MANUFACTURES. 

The  women  excel  in  the  making  of  pottery  and  in  the  weaving  of 
cloth.  Both  men  and  women  engage  in  the  construction  of  mats, 
baskets,  hats,  and  screens  from  grass,  bejuco,  bamboo,  bagaki  (reed),  and 
palma  hrava.  These  mats  are  colored  by  dyeing  and  by  burning.  The 
grass  mats  are  colored  with  native  dyes,  and  those  made  from  heavier 
materials  of  bejuco,  bamboo,  bagaki,  and  palma  brava  are  burned.  Sev- 
eral colors  (principally  shades  of  red,  yellow,  and  green)  are  produced 
with  dyes,  but  these  colors  will  fade  in  the  sun  and  when  washed.  Both 
the  coloring  and  burning  are  sometimes  arranged  so  as  to  produce  vari- 
ous designs  and  even  to  represent  animals  and  birds  which  the  people 
are  accustomed  to  see.  Light  materials,  such  as  leaves  and  cornhusks, 
are  fastened  to  the  mats  in  forms  to  represent  the  designs,  and  when  dry 
are  carefully  burned  off.  To  deepen  the  color,  more  material  is  laid  on 
and  greater  heat  produced. 

Cloth  is  made  from  the  fiber  of  hemp,  banana  stalks,  and  the  leaves 
of  the  pineapple.  Baskets  are  made  from  the  leaves  of  the  pandan 
grass,  of  the  buri  palm,  and  of  the  nitu. 

Pillows  are  made  from  kapok  (tree  cotton)  and  from  the  catkins  or 
fruit  of  a  species  of  wild  hop  that  grows  as  a  low  bush. 

Dyes  are  obtained  from  the  leaves  and  roots  of  herbs  and  from 
the  bark  and  leaves  of  trees.     Safflower  or  alazor  produces  both  red 


24  THE   SUBANU. 

and  yellow  colors.  The  balanti  tree  supplies  a  black  coloring  matter. 
The  roots  of  hancuro  afford  a  red  color.  The  bagolibas  tree  yields  a 
dye  of  yellowish-brown.  The  sibucao  r altar  tree  furnishes  a  red  coloring 
matter  and  is  very  abundant  in  the  forests.  The  bacauan  tree,  found 
in  all  mangrove  swamps,  yields  a  reddish  coloring  matter. 

In  most  of  the  Subanu  settlements  men  may  be  found  who  are 
fairly  good  wood-carvers  and  others  who  are  capable  of  fashioning  from 
steel,  brass,  and  iron  the  various  implements  used  in  agriculture  and 
in  household  work  and  hunting.  The  men  prepare  various  forms  of 
nets  or  snares  from  bejuco,  bamboo,  and  hemp  fiber  for  the  capture  of 
wild  fowl  and  wild  pigs.  A  bellows  is  constructed  from  bamboo  and 
bejuco  for  blacksmith  work. 

Wild  Subanu  and  other  pagan  tribes  make  fire  by  rubbing  dry  sticks 
in  either  the  plow  or  the  drill  method.  The  sticks  are  well  seasoned 
and  are  kept  in  the  shelter  of  the  house  until  needed;  in  journeys  they 
are  carried  on  the  person  in  baskets.  The  spark  of  fire  developed  by 
the  friction  is  caught  in  a  nest  of  dry  grass  or  dry  bamboo  scrapings. 
The  fireplace  is  a  sand  box  within  the  house,  commonly  in  a  small  room 
which  serves  as  kitchen,  but  if  in  the  living  room  it  is  set  in  a  corner. 
The  smoke  escapes  as  best  it  may  through  the  window  and  door  open- 
ings and  the  house  is  generally  much  smoked.  In  boats  a  small  baked 
clay  stove  is  used;  this  has  scalloped  sides,  is  some  i8  inches  long  by  6 
inches  wide  and  5  inches  deep.  Those  open  at  the  bottom  are  set 
within  a  sand  box  when  in  use ;  those  closed  with  an  earthenware  bottom 
receive  the  fire  without  the  sand  box.  In  the  open  country,  fires  when 
used  outside  of  the  houses  are  made  in  a  pit  in  the  ground,  kindled  with 
grass  and  leaves,  and  brought  to  heat  with  dry  fagots  and  limbs ;  the 
food  is  roasted  above  the  flame.  Sometimes  fires  are  built  under  the 
houses  for  the  purpose  of  smoking  the  interior. 

SYSTEM  OF  GOVERNMENT. 

So  far  as  known  the  Subanu  have  never  congregated  into  villages, 
as  do  the  Moros  and  Filipinos.  Their  tribal  government  is  patriarchal 
and  each  chief  governs  by  paternal  right,  subject  to  the  will  of  the 
people.  Such  communal  chief  has  the  title  of  t  muai  and  holds  it  only 
while  acting  as  headman  of  the  community.  The  term  timuai  {timu- 
way  or  timway)  is  a  Magindanao  Moro  word  meaning  chief  or  leader, 
adopted  by  the  Subanu  and  by  some  other  hill  tribes  in  Mindanao  to 
designate  their  headmen.  The  title  was  first  used  by  Tabunaway,  ruler 
of  Magindanao  (Kutu  Watu,  Kota  Batu,  Cotabato)  about  a.  d.  1470. 
Tabunaway  was  succeeded  by  Sharif  Mohamad  Kabungsuwan,  about 
A.  D.  1475,  from  whom  all  present-day  Moros  profess  their  descent. 

The  Moro  title  of  datu  is  sometimes  taken  by  Subanu  in  addition 
to  the  Subanu  title  of  timuai.  Both  signify  chief,  but  the  latter  con- 
veys greater  power  in  that  it  combines  in  one  person  both  civil  and 


SYSTEM   OF   GOVERNMENT.  25 

religious  authority.  The  title  datu  conveys  only  civil  authority.  The 
old  Subanu  title  of  panungo  signifies  "chief  of  chiefs"  and  ceases  upon 
the  death  of  the  man  upon  whom  the  unusual  honor  has  been  conferred 
by  a  council  of  iimuai.  No  young  man  can  hold  the  title  of  panungo, 
as  it  is  reserved  for  men  of  age,  long  experience,  popularity,  and  success. 

When  superseded  by  another  headman  the  title  of  timuai  becomes 
honorary  until  the  late  incumbent  may  again  be  called  to  assume  the 
direction  of  his  community.  Once  a  timuai,  the  recipient  of  the  honor 
is  Uable  at  any  time  during  his  life  to  further  active  service  as  headman 
(especially  if  he  has  been  faithful  in  the  discharge  of  pubhc  duty),  when 
not  prevented  by  physical  infirmities.  In  some  cases  where  such  head- 
men have  been  notably  efficient  in  leadership  and  very  popular  with  the 
people,  the  commonalty  have  insisted  upon  his  remaining  in  office  until 
the  very  moment  of  his  death.  Among  the  Subanu  the  family  is  the 
governmental  unit.  The  father  is  the  head  of  the  family  and  its  abso- 
lute ruler.  He  holds  the  power  of  Hfe  and  death.  An  association  or 
confederation  of  famiHes  forms  a  community  under  the  leadership  of  a 
timuai.  Family  rights  are  supreme  and  therefore  the  right  of  secession 
from  the  community  inheres  in  the  head  of  the  family.  When  a  family 
becomes  dissatisfied  with  the  conduct  and  control  of  a  headman  the 
father  secedes  and  places  his  family  under  the  domination  of  some  other 
timuai.  This  does  not  always  involve  a  change  of  residence  but  more 
often  only  a  change  of  allegiance.  Under  these  conditions  the  family 
becomes  sufficient  unto  itself  as  an  independent  governing  unit  in  all 
matters  except  those  pertaining  to  its  relation  with  other  families  in  the 
same  class.  The  tribal  government  of  the  Subanu  has  evolved  the  exec- 
utive timuai  and  clothed  that  official  with  the  necessary  authority  to 
adjust  the  relations  between  the  families  of  a  confederation  or  com- 
munity. The  size  of  such  a  community  depends  upon  the  ability  and 
popularity  of  the  timuai  in  charge.  Families  go  and  come  and  give  the 
headman  due  notice  of  the  change.  In  this  respect  perfect  freedom  is 
accorded  the  families. 

Recognizing  the  independence  of  the  families  as  a  fundamental 
principle  of  Subanu  social  order,  these  people  have  thus  far  resisted  all 
appeals  and  efforts  by  the  Spanish  and  American  governments  to  gather 
them  into  towns.  The  Subanu  dearly  cherish  the  independence  and 
freedom  of  the  family  unit  and  look  with  suspicion  and  even  fear  upon 
the  many  restrictions  that  must  of  necessity  be  imposed  upon  people 
when  they  are  closely  associated  in  communities.  As  soon  as  the  young 
men  take  to  themselves  wives  they  break  away  from  the  old  family 
home  and  estabhsh  new  family  units  at  remote  points,  where  they  can 
enjoy  all  the  freedom  of  their  peculiar  nomadic  hfe. 

At  various  times  the  Jesuit  priests  have  made  strenuous  and  per- 
sistent efforts  to  estabhsh  village  hfe  among  the  Subanu,  especially  in 
the  sub-district  of  Dapitan,  but  the  plan  was  not  successful. 


26  THE  SUBANU. 

CHARACTERISTICS  AND  HABITS. 

The  Subanu  are  lighter  in  color  than  either  the  Moros  or  the  Fili- 
pinos who  surround  them.  They  have  high  foreheads,  but  rather  flat 
noses;  mild  countenances,  with  well-set  and  expressive  eyes.  The  hair 
is  long,  straight,  and  jet-black.  While  these  people  are  not  wholly 
beardless,  usually  very  little  hair  appears  upon  the  face.  The  head  is 
covered  with  a  heavy  mat  that  is  coarse  and  refractory.  When  the 
men  permit  the  hair  to  grow  long,  they  fold  and  tie  it  in  a  knot  at  the 
back  of  the  head,  as  do  the  women.  The  latter  do  not  approve  of  the 
men  wearing  long  hair,  looking  upon  it  as  a  mark  of  weakness.  The 
women  use  their  turban  or  head-cloth  to  hold  the  hair  in  place.  They 
sometimes  do  up  with  the  hair  a  braid  of  hemp  or  banana  fiber  dyed  of  a 
color  to  match  the  hair.  This  fiber  braid  is  used  as  a  switch  of  false 
hair  to  augment  the  mass  where  the  natural  hair  is  thin  and  insufficient 
from  any  cause.  Sometimes  a  small  tuft  of  hair  grows  upon  the  chin  of 
the  males,  and  the  possessor  favors  and  protects  it  with  much  patience 
and  pride. 

The  Hmbs  are  well  rounded,  clean,  and  supple.  The  whole  form  is 
attractive  in  youth  and  in  middle  age,  because  of  fine  muscular  develop- 
ment, light  color,  and  general  freedom  from  deformities.  The  young 
women  are  graceful  in  form,  of  pleasing  countenance,  modest  and  indus- 
trious. All  native  women  in  the  tropics  lose  their  attractive  features 
early  in  life,  owing  to  the  climate,  the  severities  of  motherhood,  and  the 
burdensome  life  of  the  wife.  No  form  of  labor  is  too  severe  for  a  Subanu 
woman  to  undertake.  The  men  are  fairly  industrious  as  a  class  and, 
besides  preparing  their  kaingins  for  seeding  and  following  later  with  the 
harvest  and  storage  of  crops,  they  make  long  journeys  on  foot  in  search 
of  forest  products  (wax,  copal,  nuts,  and  gutta-percha)  which  they  may 
exchange  for  cloth,  beads,  wire,  iron,  and  steel  at  the  markets  or  with 
passing  traders. 

The  large  toe  of  many  males  is  turned  inward  to  a  marked  degree, 
giving  the  appearance  of  abnormally  projecting  away  from  the  other 
toes  and  beyond  them.  This  peculiar  development  suggests  a  prehen- 
sory  employment  of  the  member.  The  big  toe  is  used  frequently  for 
holding  fiber  and  bejuco  while  braiding  them  into  rope  and  for  other 
purposes. 

Men  do  not  use  bows  and  arrows ;  children  employ  them  as  toys. 

The  first  clothing  of  a  boy  is  a  loin  cloth ;  that  of  a  girl  a  petticoat. 
Children  go  naked  until  the  age  of  puberty.  The  facts  of  sexual  life 
are  not  hidden  from  the  children ;  they  grow  up  with  them  as  a  matter 
of  course.  Marriageable  young  men  and  maidens  are  not  segregated 
in  separate  houses,  as  with  some  tribes.  The  family  is  held  intact  with 
the  father  as  absolute  ruler.  Girls  have  little  or  no  recreation,  but  are 
occupied  with  household  duties  from  a  tender  age.     Boys  play  and  hunt. 


CHARACTERISTICS   AND   HABITS.  27 

The  Subanu  do  not  tattoo,  but  they  have  a  name  for  the  practice, 
putik  or  lulik,  derived  from  the  Visayans,  who  are  very  freely  tattooed. 

A  pecuHar  attitude  of  the  males  when  resting  is  to  lean  against 
some  support  and  then  raise  one  foot  and  place  it  against  the  knee  of 
the  other  leg ;  this  position  is  changed  from  one  leg  to  the  other,  so  as 
to  rest  both  feet. 

Circumcision,  freely  practised  by  the  Moros  as  a  religious  rite  of 
Semitic  origin,  is  rare  among  the  Subanu  and  is  not  practised  at  all  by 
the  wildest  of  these  tribesmen.  Where  circumcision  is  in  use  among  the 
pagan  tribes  of  Mindanao  incision  is  equally  in  use.  Instead  of  cutting 
the  preputium  transversely  this  consists  of  slitting  it  longitudinally  and 
allowing  the  skin  to  fall  away  on  each  side  and  to  heal  in  that  position. 
There  is  no  circumcision  of  women. 

When  on  land  the  Subanu  always  retire  from  view  when  defecating 
and  are  sedulous  to  bury  the  excreta,  with  the  idea  that  the  bodily 
refuse  is  morbific  and  must  be  avoided,  but  with  no  thought  of  scato- 
mantic  possibility  or  sympathetic  magic.  In  micturition  the  squatting 
posture  is  the  rule  and  girls  and  adults  screen  themselves  with  the  cloth- 
ing or  retire  from  view;  they  wash  after  the  operation.  The  Moros 
observe  the  same  posture,  as  do  all  of  their  religion;  the  Christian  Fili- 
pino men  stand. 

Cleanliness  of  body  is  not  a  pronounced  virtue  of  the  Subanu. 
They  do  not  bathe  as  do  the  Moros.  The  latter,  as  a  tenet  of  their 
religion,  cleanse  the  body  more  frequently  than  any  other  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  southern  islands,  including  the  Chinese,  Europeans,  and 
Americans.  While  much  attention  is  given  by  the  Moros  to  bathing 
the  body,  and  especially  to  certain  portions  of  it,  like  the  Subanu  they 
are  very  neglectful  of  their  clothing,  which  in  many  instances  is  never 
washed.  The  garments  are  worn  without  cleansing  until  they  fall  to 
pieces.  In  this  connection  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in  mind  that,  usually, 
the  garments  used  by  both  Moros  and  Pagans  are  few  and  simple,  and 
generally  the  same  for  both  males  and  females.  The  children  go  naked 
until  about  ten  years  of  age.  The  garments  of  the  adult  males  and 
females  consist  of  trousers,  petticoat,  jacket,  and  turban  or  head-cloth. 
The  youth  of  both  sexes  wear  the  same  article  of  dress  and,  as  before 
stated,  the  children  are  generally  not  provided  with  clothes.  The 
women  also  wear  ear  ornaments,  long  strings  of  colored  beads  about  the 
neck,  and  brass  rings  on  the  lower  arms  and  on  the  legs  below  the  knee. 
The  ears  are  pierced  when  children  are  young,  and  the  hole  enlarged 
gradually  by  wearing  a  small  coil  of  spHt  bejuco  rattan,  which  tends  to 
open  out  and  increase  the  size  of  the  opening  until  it  will  receive  a  circu- 
lar piece  of  wood  about  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  opening  is  now 
allowed  to  collapse  and  when  not  used  for  ornaments  is  employed  to 
hold  a  newly  rolled  or  partly  smoked  cigarette  or  cigar,  or  some  small 
article  of  frequent  use. 


28  THE   SUBANU. 

The  Subanu  are  fond  of  bright  colors  in  clothing  and  jewelry. 
The  more  grotesque  the  variety  and  arrangement  the  better  are  they 
pleased.  This  fondness  for  adornment  among  the  women  and  young 
men  leads  often  to  the  undoing  of  the  family  by  reason  of  the  fact  that 
the  ornaments  (always  of  brass,  copper,  and  colored  glass)  are  sold  to 
them  by  Filipino,  Chinese,  and  Moro  traders  at  prices  outrageously 
above  the  true  value.  The  writer  has  investigated  many  such  cases 
of  swindling  and  fraud  and  has  brought  to  justice  some  of  the  perpe- 
trators of  such  acts.  One  instance  may  be  cited  to  show  the  artlessness 
and  folly  of  a  Subanu  who  was  persuaded  to  exchange  a  full-grown  ox 
for  a  brass  ring  with  a  colored-glass  setting.  The  animal  was  worth 
not  less  than  70  pesos  and  the  ring  much  less  than  i  peso.  To  save 
these  hill  people  from  much  suffering  through  the  operations  of  defraud- 
ing traders,  the  writer  devised  and  organized  the  Moro  exchange  system 
of  pubUc  markets  and  trading  stores  in  the  early  part  of  1904,  and 
opened  the  first  establishment  at  Zamboanga  on  September  i  of  that 
year.  Since  then  more  than  thirty  such  trading  stations  have  been 
opened  in  the  District  of  Zamboanga,  where  the  hill  people  have  gathered 
by  thousands  and  ascertained  and  obtained  the  highest  current  market 
value,  through  the  government  superintendent,  for  the  products  of 
their  labor,  and  made  purchases  of  necessary  manufactured  articles  at 
the  lowest  current  market  price. 

Various  methods  are  resorted  to  in  counting,  such  as  tying  knots 
in  a  strip  of  split  hejuco;  arranging  objects  in  a  line,  such  as  shells, 
small  stones,  kernels  of  corn  or  rice.  In  some  instances  the  fingers  are 
used  or  a  combination  of  the  fingers  and  small  objects.  For  example, 
the  shells,  stones  or  kernels  are  arranged  in  groups  of  five,  corresponding 
to  the  fingers  of  one  hand.  These  groups  are  counted  up  to  ten,  corre- 
sponding to  the  number  of  fingers  on  both  hands.  In  some  cases  count- 
ing is  accomplished  by  cutting  notches  on  a  stick  and  these  notches 
may  be  cut  in  groups  of  five  or  arranged  consecutively,  according  to 
the  fancy  of  the  person  thus  engaged.  Counting  by  use  of  objects 
arranged  in  fines  and  groups  may  have  been  acquired  from  the  Chinese 
traders  who  have  worked  over  the  islands  for  centuries. 

Upon  arriving  at  the  age  of  puberty  many  of  the  men  and  women 
grind  and  blacken  their  teeth.  This  practice  is  not  only  very  painful, 
but  greatly  detracts  from  their  personal  appearance  and  leads  to  diges- 
tive troubles  through  want  of  proper  mastication  of  food.  Sometimes 
the  teeth  are  ground  down  to  the  gums  and  the  stumps  fall  out  and 
painful  ulcers  ensue.  The  writer  has  persistently  followed  a  course  of 
constant  opposition  to  this  pernicious  habit  with  rather  small  but  en- 
couraging success.  The  practice  is  not  of  religious  origin,  but  appears 
to  have  been  resorted  to  many  years  ago  by  reason  of  the  belief  that 
pearly- white  teeth  belonged  to  animals  like  dogs  and  cats,  of  which 
the  Subanu  have  many,  and  that  man,  as  a  superior  animal,  must 


CHARACTERISTICS   AND   HABITS.  29 

change  the  color  of  his  teeth  if  he  wished  to  maintain  his  supremacy 
over  the  lower  animals.  The  writer  has  discussed  this  question  with 
many  Moros  and  Pagans  who  follow  the  practice  and  has  pointed  out 
to  them  the  fact  that  the  colored  races,  generally  throughout  the  world, 
consider  the  white  man  as  of  a  superior  race  and  seek  in  various  ways 
to  modify  the  color  of  their  skin  by  bleaching  it  and  by  marriage  with 
the  white  races;  that  in  preparation  for  marriage  many  Moro  and 
Pagan  women  resort  to  a  slow  and  rather  painful  process  to  whiten 
the  skin,  even  though  only  temporary  results  are  attained;  that  the 
white  races  highly  prize  white  teeth  as  a  sign  of  cleanliness,  good  health, 
intelligence,  and  civilization;  that  therefore  the  Moros  and  Pagans 
should  aspire  to  follow  the  habits  of  the  white  man  regarding  his  teeth 
and  avoid  much  suffering,  as  well  as  vastly  improve  their  appearance. 
Some  success  has  attended  this  effort  to  improve  sanitary  conditions 
among  the  hill  people  and  the  shore  people.  In  some  cases  the  men 
have  brought  their  wives  and  children  to  the  governor  to  show  him  the 
progress  made  in  the  proper  preservation  of  their  teeth. 

The  superstitious  nature  of  the  Subanu  and  Moros  is  also  illus- 
trated by  their  refusal  to  give  their  names  except  through  a  third  party. 
The  interrogator  should  always  ask  an  acquaintance,  friend,  or  some 
member  of  the  family  of  the  person  questioned,  for  information  as  to 
his  name,  and  the  reply  must  come  from  such  third  party  without 
inquiry  of  the  second  party.  The  reason  assigned  is  that  these  people 
do  not  wish  to  be  considered  like  the  egotistic  crow  who  cries  about  and 
incessantly  calls  his  name.  The  natives  throughout  the  Philippines, 
where  crows  abound,  have  named  the  bird  according  to  their  interpreta- 
tion of  its  well-known  call,  for  example :  in  Subanu,  qnak ;  in  Visayan, 
awak;  in  Magindano  Moro,  knak;  in  Sulu  Moro,  wak;  in  Tagalog,  wak; 
in  Malay,  gagak;  in  Yakan,  uwak* 

The  Subanu  practice  polygamy,  but  not  as  extensively  as  the 
Moros.  They  have  a  high  regard  for  the  marriage  bond  and  are  faith- 
ful in  the  marital  relation.  Polyandry  is  occasionally  resorted  to  where 
men  are  too  poor  to  provide  the  laxa  (dowry)  required  to  secure  a  wife, 
and  two  of  them  join  in  the  purchase  of  one  woman.  The  laxa  is  paid 
to  the  father  of  the  bride.  In  some  Subanu  communities  the  women 
are  considerably  in  excess  of  the  men,  but  even  under  such  circum- 
stances and  the  ignominy  of  remaining  celibate,  these  native  women 
are  opposed  to  the  practice  of  polyandry.  Marriages  are  performed 
by  the  iimuai  or  chief  of  a  settlement,  and  he  may  be  rewarded  for  his 

*The  custom  is  of  wide  extent  among  primitive  people  in  many  widely  scattered  regions, 
and,  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  collate  the  reasons  assigned,  this  objection  of  the  Subanu 
is  but  a  pretext.  In  general  the  name  is  so  much  a  part  of  the  spiritual  essence  of  the  man 
that  the  man  hesitates  to  give  it  over  to  the  possible  thaumaturgj'  of  a  stranger.  In  the 
Semitic  system  and  in  later  developments  therefrom  the  highest  observance  of  religion 
involves  the  avoidance  of  the  ineffable  name,  the  employment  of  substitutes,  and  in  the 
highest  act  of  worship  the  utterance  of  the  name  indistinguishable  in  the  din  of  the  temple 
instruments  of  music. — W.  C. 


30  THE   SUBANU. 

services  if  the  groom  is  able  to  make  a  gift.  The  dowry  is  generally 
paid  in  the  form  of  cloth,  Chinese  jars,  and  brass  gongs.  The  payment 
may  be  made  in  any  article  of  value  agreed  upon  between  the  father 
of  the  bride  and  the  groom.  Actual  money  is  rarely  used  for  this 
purpose,  as  it  is  possessed  in  very  limited  amount,  if  at  all,  by  these 
people;  those  of  the  far  interior  never  handle  money,  but  gain  a  few 
manufactured  articles  through  the  process  of  bartering  raw  products 
for  them,  and  always  thereby  suffer  loss  in  deaUng  with  the  wandering 
traders. 

The  Subanu  possess  a  rich  folk-lore  which  they  are  not  altogether 
averse  to  make  known  to  the  stranger,  especially  if  he  comes  equipped 
with  the  sanction  and  interposition  of  the  timuai.  Their  short  tales 
generally  seem  vulgar  to  the  Christian  and  are  indulged  in  as  stories 
to  create  a  laugh  and  make  the  narrator  appear  as  a  "good  fellow." 
Their  legends  are  prolonged  and  serious  accounts  of  the  alleged  experi- 
ences of  imaginary  persons,  gods,  and  mythical  headmen.  The  details 
of  these  experiences  are  given  in  a  natural  and  easy  manner  and  by 
the  use  of  terms  and  relations  that  are  common  to  the  daily  life  of  the 
people.  The  narration  is  given  usually  in  an  ordinary  tone  of  voice, 
but  may  be  recited  in  a  sort  of  singing  tone  that  produces  a  weird  effect 
at  night  in  the  forest  when  the  face  of  the  chanter  is  lighted  by  the 
glare  of  the  torches. 

In  the  course  of  such  narratives  mention  has  been  made  of  the 
following  characters  of  pure  myth  or  of  dim  history,  in  the  present 
stage  of  our  knowledge  it  being  quite  impossible  to  reach  a  definite 
determination : 

Datu  nong  Mitom  Gawasa  nong  Medendum,  Timuai  Dogbuluan  Getunan, 
Timuai  Datu  Lumugun,  Timuai  Datu  Magutanga,  these  being  men- 
tioned as  chiefs  in  the  myths. 

Bai  Binubung  and  Bai  Punbenua,  mythical  princesses. 

Datu  Magujabang  Pungobii  Megligat  Dali  Ondao,  characterized  as  the  chief 
of  the  land  of  the  setting  sun. 

Timuai  Datu  Magbayaja,  spoken  of  as  a  great  halian  and  one  of  the  most 
potent  of  the  diuata. 

Timuai  Datu  Pogowanen,  whose  residence  is  in  the  sky. 

Timuai  Datu  Menelenga,  a  battle  spirit  in  command  of  the  sea  depths. 

Timuai  Datu  Menelengman,  also  in  the  sea. 

Timuai  Datu  Gunlu  or  Munlu  or  Makaayaga,  the  chief  of  the  manamat  or 
evil  spirits  of  the  body. 

Timuai  Datu  Magaboligan,  chief  of  the  evil  spirits  of  the  rivers. 

According  to  the  Subanu  cult  all  dreams  are  under  the  control  of 
the  spirits  who  thereby  express  their  will;  all  the  Subanu  dream,  there- 
fore each  person  is  considered  to  have  a  sentient  soul  within  his  body 
and  a  corresponding  spirit  somewhere  external.  Dreams  are  the  com- 
munion of  soul  and  spirit,  but  they  are  not  of  private  interpretation. 
It  is  the  province  to  the  halian  to  read  the  visions  of  the  night  and  to 
explain  their  purport  with  the  assistance  of  the  lines  in  the  palm  of 


CHARACTERISTICS  AND   HABITS.  31 

the  hand.  The  spirits  may  come  upon  earth  in  a  form  resembling  that 
of  the  person  who  has  the  counterpart  soul. 

The  Subanu  have  so  long  been  in  subjection  to  the  Mohammedans 
and  Christians  who  siu-round  them,  and  have  been  compelled  to  pay 
tribute  and  obey  the  commands  of  such  self-appointed  rulers,  that  they 
have  become  timid,  unwarlike,  and  non-progressive.  To  escape  menial 
service  and  tribute  they  have  acquired  deceptive  and  lying  traits  of 
character,  so  that  they  are  denounced  as  untrustworthy  and  as  devoid 
of  the  characteristics  which  tend  to  develop  a  strong  and  prosperous 
people.  At  times,  when  driven  into  a  corner  and  brutally  imposed 
upon,  they  have  resisted  their  persecutors  with  ferocity.  They  can  and 
will  fight  when  exposed  to  repeated  indignities  and  to  the  violation  of 
their  homes;  but  many  instances  could  be  given  to  illustrate  how  they 
have  been  cut  to  pieces  and  robbed  of  everything  by  marauding  bands 
of  Moros,  even  while  extending  the  hand  of  friendship  and  hospitaUty 
to  their  treacherous  visitors.  This  was  the  penalty  for  having  acquired 
some  comforts  and  surplus  products,  over  and  above  the  barest  neces- 
sities of  maintaining  life,  thus  exciting  the  cupidity  of  their  persistent 
enemies.  Continuing  for  several  centuries,  these  methods  have  devel- 
oped an  inveterately  hostile  relation  between  the  hill  people  and  the 
shore  people. 

Following  in  the  wake  of  the  Moros,  the  Christians  have  ruthlessly 
applied  to  the  hill  people  a  raiding  system  that  has  kept  the  Subanu  in 
ignorance  and  poverty,  seriously  retarding  the  development  of  the  coun- 
try. Naturally,  under  such  blighting  influences,  the  Subanu  are  cowed, 
suspicious,  and  superstitious.  Having  withstood  every  form  of  adver- 
sity and  preserved  their  dialect,  religion,  customs,  and  industries,  these 
people  now  deserve  patient,  strong,  and  continued  support.  Their  bad 
habits  must  be  borne  with,  their  virtues  commended,  and  the  way  of 
advancement  made  easy  under  protection  and  supervision.  They  are 
the  natural  farmers  of  the  country  they  inhabit,  and  only  their  adapta- 
bility to  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  with  its  inherent  richness,  has  saved 
them  from  extermination  by  the  rapacity  of  the  Mohammedans  and 
Christians.  It  is  no  mean  record  that  they  have  made  the  soil  support 
both  the  hill  people  and  the  shore  people  for  about  three  centuries. 

In  contending  against  the  difficulties  of  their  settlement  life  the 
Subanu  have  gradually  adopted  an  effective  quarantine  service  against 
the  spread  of  infectious  diseases  like  smallpox,  measles,  and  cholera. 
Upon  the  appearance  of  the  first  case  among  any  of  the  settlement  fami- 
Hes  the  iimuai  orders  the  establishment  of  the  signals  of  quarantine  and 
these  are  quickly  provided.  Fences  of  poles  and  split  bamboo  or  bejtico 
are  erected  across  the  main  trails  leading  to  the  houses  of  the  settlement. 
On  these  fences  are  placed,  in  fixed  positions,  carved  imitations  of  war 
weapons,  such  as  spears,  kampilans,  harongs,  a.nd  piras,  pointed  outward 
to  warn  the  approaching  stranger  or  visitor  to  remain  away.     It  is  a 


32  THE   SUBANU. 

notice  that  death  will  be  visited  upon  the  person  who  attempts  to  enter 
the  settlement  while  the  scourge  of  disease  prevails.  The  victims  of  the 
disease  are  segregated  in  isolated  houses,  supplied  with  food  and  water, 
and  then  abandoned  by  friends  and  relatives  when  recovery  seems 
impossible.  If  death  ensues,  the  bodies  may  be  buried  later  by  the 
relatives,  and  if  any  of  the  afflicted  recover  they  are  aided  to  rejoin  their 
families.  Near  the  signal  fences  are  erected  light  wooden  stands  with 
offerings  of  various  articles  of  food  to  appease  the  wrath  of  the  gods 
and  cause  them  to  assist  in  extirpating  the  disease.  Small  sheds  are 
also  sometimes  erected  near  the  stands,  under  which  guards  may  be 
stationed  to  prevent  the  food  from  being  taken  by  wild  animals,  birds, 
and  mischievous  persons.  But  the  guards  go  to  sleep  and  the  food 
(cooked  rice,  boiled  eggs,  fruit,  tobacco,  betel-nut,  cooked  chicken,  etc.) 
disappears,  whereupon  the  guards  report  that  diuata  (god)  has  accepted 
the  gifts  and  will  drive  away  the  disease.  Superstition  and  good  sense 
are  strangely  but  effectively  mingled  in  this  scheme  of  practical  and  effi- 
cacious quarantine,  and  the  Subanu  stand  alone  among  all  the  tribes 
and  peoples  of  Mindanao  in  devising  and  operating  such  protective 
measures. 

The  attempt  in  1904-05  to  induce  Subanu  to  enUst  in  the  Philip- 
pine Constabulary  was  abandoned  as  impracticable,  after  a  trial  of  a 
few  months,  during  which  every  man  induced  to  enter  had  deserted. 
These  people  have  no  desire  to  become  soldiers  or  policemen,  or  to  seek 
employment  far  from  their  homes.  A  hard  and  bitter  life  has  taught 
them  to  place  no  confidence  in  the  stranger  and  very  little  in  any  form 
of  government  but  their  own. 

RELIGION. 

The  Subanu  are  nature  worshipers  and  believe  that  the  spirits  of 
their  gods  dwell  in  some  of  the  most  striking  natural  features  of  the 
land ;  for  example,  in  an  unusually  large  tree,  in  a  huge  rock  balanced  on  a 
small  base,  in  a  peculiarly  shaped  mound  of  earth,  in  an  isolated  cave,  in 
a  mountain  top  difficult  of  ascent,  and  the  like.  The  gods  or  spirits  are 
called  diuata.  The  Subanu  or  his  balian  realizes  that  no  man  or  woman 
on  the  earth  can  build  these  trees,  the  great  rocks  and  the  mountains, 
and  believes  they  must  therefore  be  the  handiwork  of  the  gods  and  the 
abode  of  their  spirits.  In  the  presence  of  these  evidences  of  the  great 
power  of  the  gods,  the  Subanu  finds  his  opportunity  for  communion 
with  the  diuata.  At  these  places  he  prays  to  the  spirits  for  good  crops, 
freedom  from  disease,  a  safe  journey,  the  recovery  of  a  member  of  his 
family  from  disease  or  injury,  for  rain  to  break  a  protracted  period  of 
drought,  and  the  like.  He  likewise  argues  that  no  person  could  make 
the  sea  and  that  therefore  the  spirit  of  one  of  the  diuata  must  reside 
therein,  and  to  that  spirit  he  prays  for  a  safe  journey  upon  it. 

The  spirits  or  diuata  are  beheved  to  possess  the  power  of  producing 
conception  without  human  agency,  and  the  progeny  of  such  unions 


RELIGION.  33 

become  the  most  efficient  balian;  they  may  visit  the  sky  to  attend  the 
g^eat  assembUes  (bichara)  of  the  diuata,  and  upon  earth  they  have 
power  to  raise  the  dead. 

Observances  of  a  religious  character,  either  informal  or  with  the 
assistance  of  the  balian,  are  frequent  in  all  the  affairs  of  life,  the  clearing 
of  a  new  plantation,  the  building  of  a  house,  the  hunting  of  the  wild  hog, 
the  search  for  wild  honey,  the  snaring  of  feathered  game,  the  beginning 
of  a  journey  by  sea  or  by  land,  the  harvesting  of  the  crops.  Such 
ceremonies  are  accompanied  by  offerings  proportionate  to  the  wealth 
of  the  worshiper.  In  general,  all  spirits  (even  such  as  are  popularly 
considered  benevolent)  must  be  propitiated  by  food-offerings.  These 
sacrifices  comprise  betel-nuts,  tobacco  and  cigarettes  and  cigars,  boiled 
eggs,  cooked  rice,  young  fowl,  the  meat  of  a  young  pig,  and  the  burning 
of  incense  in  the  form  of  the  resin  of  the  nibung  tree. 

Festivals  {buklug)  are  held  to  propitiate  the  diuata  or  to  celebrate 
some  event  in  which  an  entire  settlement  is  interested.  The  principal 
features  of  a  buklug  are  religious  ceremonies,  feasting,  drinking,  dancing, 
and  singing.  The  religious  ceremonies  are  performed  exclusively  by 
the  medicine  men  and  the  medicine  woman,  called  balian  or  belian.  The 
men  rise  to  greater  prominence  and  power  in  this  profession  than  the 
women.  Occasionally  some  strong-minded  woman  attains  great  power 
in  a  settlement.  At  a  buklug  the  balian  conduct  their  ceremonies 
independently  of  the  other  people,  who  never  interfere  with  these 
professional  duties  and  go  about  their  feasting,  drinking,  and  dancing 
as  if  their  very  lives  depended  upon  getting  the  most  out  of  all  these 
enjoyments.  The  balian  are  entitled  to  receive  fees  for  their  services 
at  buklugs  and  are  usually  paid  in  cotton  cloth,  tobacco,  rice,  or  palay. 

The  functions  of  a  balian  may  be  classified  as  those  of  a  medium, 
direct  intercourse  with  spirits,  the  conduct  of  sacrifices,  and  the  healing 
of  the  sick. 

Prayers  to  the  spirits  or  diuata  are  offered  in  the  posture  most 
convenient  to  the  occasion,  standing,  sitting,  or  kneeling.  The  prayers 
may  be  chanted  in  a  monotone,  delivered  by  a  silent  motion  of  the  lips 
or  indicated  by  the  bowed  head. 

Adjoining  the  house  of  a  balian  is  sometimes  placed  a  small  struc- 
ture resembUng  a  dove-cote,  erected  on  a  pole  or  stand,  in  which  the 
spirits  with  which  the  balian  is  accustomed  to  commune  are  beheved  to 
reside  temporarily  during  such  communion.  In  these  spirit  houses  are 
placed  articles  of  food  for  the  refreshment  of  the  spirits.  Sometimes 
spirits  are  represented  by  rough  wooden  images  and  they  may  have 
attached  to  them,  by  wooden  pegs  or  strands  of  split  bejuco,  representa- 
tions in  carved  wood  of  various  weapons,  such  as  barong  and  kampilan. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  spirits  may  require  weapons  for  self -protection. 

Wooden  altars  (small,  rough  tables  or  stands)  are  erected  at  various 
places,  on  the  banks  of  streams  and  occasionally  on  the  sea  beach, 


34  THE  SUBANU. 

where  communion  is  held  with  the  spirits  or  diuata  and  where  they 
may  receive  food. 

Every  large  collection  of  Subanu  usually  contains  representatives 
of  their  halian  or  priestly  fraternity.  These  wizards,  both  men  and 
women,  have  mysterious  association  with  the  spirits  or  diuata  and  are 
beUeved  to  possess  the  power  of  discerning  the  cause  of  all  forms  of 
illness  and  of  applying  the  proper  remedies  to  effect  satisfactory  cures. 
If  restoration  to  health  is  not  effected  through  the  intervention  of  a 
medicine  man  or  a  medicine  woman,  then  the  sins  of  the  patient  have 
been  too  great  for  the  spirits  or  diuata  to  forgive,  and  the  offerings  made 
by  the  family  and  friends  of  the  sufferer  have  proved  too  unimportant 
to  merit  more  powerful  intervention  by  the  halian  with  the  diuata. 

Failure  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  gods  as  interpreted  by  the 
halian  may  lead  to  extreme  measures  on  the  part  of  the  relatives  and 
friends  of  the  patient,  especially  if  the  illness  can  be  connected  with 
some  affair  of  general  importance  to  the  Subanu  people  or  to  any  settle- 
ment. Under  such  conditions  greater  offerings  must  be  made  if  pos- 
sible and  resort  may  be  had  to  human  sacrifices.  That  such  sacrifices 
have  been  made  in  times  past  is  acknowledged  by  trustworthy  Subanu, 
although  these  people  are  averse  to  talking  about  their  religious  prac- 
tices. To  their  minds  the  subject  is  fraught  with  many  portentous 
consequences.  By  unguarded  words  they  might  incur  the  enmity  of 
some  of  the  gods  and  then  untold  injury  would  come  upon  them  per- 
sonally or  upon  some  of  their  relatives  and  friends. 

Human  sacrifice  has  been  resorted  to  by  the  Bagobos  (hill  people) 
of  eastern  Mindanao  and  probably  by  other  hill  tribes  in  that  great 
island.  The  last  recorded  case  was  reported  on  January  3,  1908,  by 
the  district  governor  of  Davao  (southern  Mindanao),  who  states  that 
the  sacrifice  was  made  by  Bagobos  at  the  rancheria  of  Talon  near  Digos 
on  December  9,  1907.     The  following  is  extracted  from  the  report : 

The  headman  Datu  Ansig  said  that  a  sacrifice  had  been  held  and  that 
both  he  and  his  people  were  ready  to  tell  all  about  it,  as  to  the  best  of  their 
belief  they  had  committed  no  crime,  but  only  followed  out  a  religious  custom 
practiced  by  themselves  and  their  ancestors  from  time  immemorial.  The 
Datu  and  his  followers  say  that  the  Bagobos  have  several  gods :  Bacalad,  god  of 
the  spirits ;  Agpanmole  Manobo,  god  of  good,  and  his  wife,  the  goddess  Dewata; 
Mandarangan,  the  god  of  evil,  to  whom  sacrifice  is  made  in  order  to  appease 
his  wrath,  which  is  shown  by  misfortune,  years  of  drought,  or  of  evil  befalling 
the  tribe  or  its  members.  Also,  it  is  at  times  necessary  to  offer  him  human 
sacrifice  so  that  he  will  allow  the  spirits  of  the  deceased  to  rest.  In  case  a 
Bagobo  of  rank  or  great  influence  dies  and  his  widow  is  unable  to  secure  another 
husband,  it  becomes  necessary  for  her  to  offer  sacrifice  to  appease  the  spirit  of 
her  departed  husband  in  order  that  she  may  obtain  another. 

To  provide  that  these  sacrifices  be  not  made  too  frequently,  it  is  custo- 
mary for  the  old  men  of  the  town  to  gather  once  each  year,  during  the  time 
when  a  collection  of  seven  stars,  three  at  right  angles  to  the  other  four,  are 
seen  in  the  heavens  to  the  east  at  seven  o'clock  in  the  evening,  which  is  said  to 
occur  once  each  year,  during  the  first  part  of  December.     This  collection  of 


RELIGION.  35 

Stars  is  called  by  the  Bagabos  "Balatic"  and  is  the  sign  of  the  sacrifice;  that 
is,  if  a  sacrifice  is  to  occur  it  must  take  place  during  the  period  when  the  stars 
are  in  this  position. 

The  old  men  meet  and  decide  if  enough  misfortime  has  overtaken  the  tribe 
or  village  during  the  period  since  the  last  sacrifice  to  render  necessary  another 
tribute  to  the  god  of  evil.  It  is  not  necessary  to  offer  a  sacrifice  for  each  evil, 
but  when  the  misfortunes  amount  to  considerable  a  sacrifice  is  held  to  cover 
the  entire  lot. 

In  this  case  it  appears  that  two  widows,  Addy  and  Obby,  went  to  Datu 
Ansig  and  requested  that  he  arrange  a  sacrifice  to  appease  the  spirits  of  their 
departed  husbands,  which  were  bothering  them.  Ansig  called  a  meeting  of 
the  old  men  at  which  were  present,  besides  himself,  Bagobos  Oling,  Pandaya, 
and  Ansing,  and  these  four  decided  that,  as  they  had  not  had  a  sacrifice  since 
the  great  drought  (about  three  years  ago) ,  and  that  since  that  time  many  evils 
had  befallen  them,  it  would  be  well  to  offer  a  sacrifice.  These  four  men  sent 
out  to  find  a  slave  for  sacrifice,  the  finder  becoming  the  chief  of  the  sacrifice. 

Ongon,  a  henchman  of  Datu  Ansig,  purchased  from  Bagobo  Ido  a  Bilan 
slave  boy,  named  Sacum,  about  eight  years  old,  and  who  was  deaf  and  cross- 
eyed and  had  other  defects  of  vision,  making  him  of  little  or  no  value  as  a 
laborer.  Ido  originally  received  this  slave  from  Duon,  a  Bilan,  as  a  wedding 
present  when  he  married  Duon's  daughter  about  a  year  ago. 

Ongon  agreed  to  pay  Ido  five  gongs  for  the  boy  and  took  him  to  the 
house  of  Ansig,  where  arrangements  were  made  for  the  sacrifice  by  calling  on 
all  who  for  any  reason  had  need  to  appease  the  evil  spirits  to  come  and  take 
part.  Three  days  after  the  slave  was  brought  to  the  house  of  Ansig  the  people 
met  at  Talon  near  the  river  Inoli,  a  short  distance  from  Ansig's  house,  this 
being  the  regular  place  of  sacrifice. 

Leaving  the  house  of  Ansig,  the  boy,  Sacum,  was  seated  upon  the  ground 
near  the  place  of  sacrifice.  He  was  naked,  but  no  other  preparation  was  made 
with  regard  to  his  person.  Upon  a  platform  or  bench  of  bamboo  about  two 
feet  high  and  a  foot  or  two  square  was  placed  a  small  basket  or  receptacle  made 
of  the  bark  of  the  bonga  tree;  in  this  each  person  present  and  taking  part  in 
the  sacrifice  placed  a  piece  of  betel-nut;  over  this  the  men  placed  their  head 
kerchiefs,  and  over  them  the  women  laid  strips  of  the  bark  of  the  palma  tree. 
Upon  this  the  men  laid  their  bolos,  and  spears  were  then  stuck  in  the  ground 
in  a  circle  around  the  platform.  Next  Datu  Ansig,  as  chief  of  the  sacrifice, 
made  an  oration,  which  was  about  as  follows: 

" Oh!  Mandarangan,  chief  of  evil  spirits  and  all  the  other  spirits,  come  to 
our  feast  and  accept  our  sacrifice.  Let  this  sacrifice  appease  your  wrath  and 
take  from  us  our  misfortunes,  granting  us  better  times." 

After  this  the  boy,  Sacum,  was  brought  forward  by  Ongon,  placed  against 
a  small  tree  about  six  feet  high,  his  hands  tied  above  his  head  and  his  body  tied 
to  the  tree  with  bejuco  strips  at  the  waist  and  knees.  Ansig  then  placed  a  spear 
at  the  child's  right  side  at  a  point  below  the  right  arm  and  above  the  margin  of 
the  ribs.  The  lance  was  grasped  by  the  widows,  Addy  and  Obby,  who  at  a 
signal  from  Ansig  forced  it  through  the  child's  body,  it  coming  out  at  the  other 
side.  It  was  immediately  withdrawn  and  the  body  cut  in  two  at  the  waist  by 
bolos  in  the  hands  of  Modesto  Barrero  and  Ola,  after  which  the  body  was  cut 
down  and  chopped  into  bits  by  the  people  present,  each  of  whom  was  allowed 
to  take  a  small  portion  as  a  memento  of  the  occasion,  the  remainder  of  the  body 
being  buried  in  a  hole  prepared  for  it. 

Datu  Ansig,  a  man  about  sixty  years  of  age,  says  that  in  his  life  he  has 
attended  or  officiated  at  fifty  human  sacrifices,  more  or  less,  both  among  the 
Bagobos  and  the  Bilanes;  and  that  human  sacrifice  is  also  a  practice  among 


36  THE   SUBANU. 

the  Tagacolos,  although  he  has  never  been  present  at  one  held  by  that  tribe. 
The  Bagobos  sacrifice  none  but  old  and  decrepit  or  useless  slaves  captured 
from  other  tribes,  but  the  Bilanes  sacrifice  even  their  own  people.  Being  asked 
if  it  was  customary  to  eat  any  portion  of  the  body  sacrificed,  Ansig  said  it  was 
not  customary,  nor  did  he  know  of  any  case  where  such  had  occurred. 

The  last  sacrifice  before  this  was  held  at  Talon  during  the  year  of  the 
drought  (about  1905),  when  a  Bilan  slave,  an  old  man  who  was  paralyzed  in 
one  arm,  was  sacrificed  by  Datu  Oling,  his  master. 

Asked  if  the  sacrifice  of  an  animal  would  not  do  as  well  as  that  of  a  human 
being,  they  said  no,  better  to  have  no  sacrifice  at  all. 

They  appeared  utterly  unconscious  of  having  committed  any  crime,  told 
their  story  with  frankness,  said  it  was  a  matter  not  talked  about  among  their 
own  people ;  but  that  if  we  wanted  to  know  the  facts  they  would  give  them  to 
the  authorities.  They  claimed  the  offering  of  human  sacrifices  by  their  tribe 
to  be  an  old  custom,  and  as  far  as  they  knew  the  only  way  to  appease  the  wrath 
of  the  evil  spirits,  but  said  if  ordered  to  give  the  custom  up  they  would  do  so, 
even  if  the  Devil  got  them  all. 

Near  the  rancheria  of  Ley  (Lai),  in  Sibugai  Bay,  the  Subanu  of 
that  region  possess  a  tradition  concerning  a  great  chief  who  frequently 
sought  relief  from  physical  exhaustion  by  the  sacrifice  of  one  of  his 
slaves,  whose  blood  and  heart  he  consumed  while  these  parts  were  still 
warm.  A  mound  on  a  steep  blufif  overlooking  the  river  at  Ley  is  claimed 
to  be  the  sepulcher  of  the  famous  and  greatly  feared  Subanu  chief. 

In  the  Philippine  Journal  of  Science  for  1908  the  subject  of  human 
sacrifices  in  the  Philippines  is  presented  with  a  list  of  cases  reported 
by  the  Spanish  missionaries. 

The  Subanu  are  very  reticent  about  divulging  any  detailed  infor- 
mation as  to  the  occurrence  of  human  sacrifices  among  their  people.  In 
the  absence  of  a  decided  negative  to  a  direct  inquiry,  it  may  be  safely 
asserted  that  such  practice  was  rather  common  among  them  before  the 
American  occupation,  especially  in  the  secluded  mountain  areas  of  the 
upper  Dapitan  and  Malindang  country. 

During  the  great  buklug  or  religious  festivals  of  the  Subanu  excite- 
ment runs  high,  and  sometimes  it  is  hard  for  the  more  conservative  head- 
men to  keep  the  younger  element  under  control.  Unscrupulous  and 
vicious  Moros  and  Filipinos  take  advantage  of  the  extreme  agitation 
attending  these  festivals,  impose  upon  the  credulous  balian,  debauch 
them  with  visions  of  exercising  extraordinary  power  over  their  fellows, 
stir  up  unusual  religious  fervor  through  alleged  spirit  manifestations 
from  the  diuata,  and  appeal  to  the  passions  of  the  lowest  members  of 
the  tribe  for  sordid  gain.  Under  such  circumstances  the  ignorant  and 
credulous  hill  people  are  willing  to  desert  their  homes,  abandon  their 
crops  and  personal  property,  and  give  themselves  over  to  the  depraved 
control  of  their  self-constituted  leaders. 

The  Jesuits  first  arrived  in  the  Philippines  in  June,  1595,  with  Gov- 
ernor Don  Antonio  de  Morga,  and  in  the  following  year  two  of  these 
missionaries  entered  the  island  of  Mindanao  with  the  ill-fated  expedi- 
tion under  the  command  of  Captain  Rodriguez  de  Figueroa.     After  his 


RELIGION.  37 

death  in  1596  at  the  hands  of  Moros,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande 
River,  in  the  Coto  Bato  Valley,  the  expedition,  under  its  new  com- 
mander, General  Juan  Ronquillo,  retired  to  Caldora  Bay,  10  miles 
west  of  Zamboanga,  and  constructed  a  presidio,  which  was  garrisoned 
by  100  Spanish  soldiers.  Here  the  Jesuit  missionaries,  including  Father 
Juan  del  Campo,  assisted  by  Brother  Gaspar  Gomez,  began  work  among 
the  Subanu  and  the  Lutaos  (Samales). 

In  1 63 1  St.  Francis  Xavier  began  work  among  the  Subanu  near 
Dapitan.  He  was  preceded  in  1626  by  Fathers  Juan  Lopez,  Fabricio 
Sarsali,  and  Francisco  de  Otazo.  In  the  year  1629  the  missionary  work 
in  the  Subanu  country  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  Bishop  of  Cebu, 
Fray  Don  Pedro  de  Arze.  Missions  were  established  by  Father  Pedro 
Gutierrez  in  1631  and  1632  along  the  west  coast  of  the  peninsula,  from 
Dapitan  to  Zamboanga.  The  permanent  mission  of  Dapitan  was  estab- 
lished in  1 63 1  and  Father  Gutierrez  was  made  the  rector. 

The  first  Catholic  priest  to  minister  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  the 
Subanu  near  Dapitan  was  Father  Pasqual  de  Acuna  in  1607.  It  is 
stated  that  he  preached  among  these  people  with  great  success  and  bap- 
tized 200  of  them.  Missions  were  established  by  Fathers  Lopez,  Campo, 
and  Gutierrez  at  Dipolog,Duhinog,Dicayo,Disakang,Sindangan,Mucas, 
TeUnga,  Quipit,  Siocong,  Sibuku,  La  Caldera,  Malandi,  Baldasan,  and 
Bocot,  all  situated  on  the  coast.  Later,  Fathers  Francisco  Combes, 
Francisco  Paliola,  Pedro  Tellez,  and  Adolfo  de  Pedrosa  labored  among 
the  Subanu.  Father  PaUola  was  killed  by  the  islanders  in  1648  and 
Father  Campo  on  January  7,  1650,  at  the  Mission  of  Siocong  (now 
written  Siukun). 

The  early  missionaries  suffered  many  hardships  in  trying  to  con- 
vert the  Subanu  to  Christianity.  They  applied  themselves  with  great 
courage  and  fidelity  to  the  difficult  task  and  succeeded  in  Uberating 
slaves,  aiding  the  sick,  diminishing  barbarous  practices,  and  bringing  a 
few  of  the  more  tractable  under  the  spiritual  instruction  of  the  church. 
Commendable  effort  was  made  to  instruct  the  children  in  the  art  of 
reading  and  writing  by  using  the  pubHcations  of  the  church.  Solemn 
services  were  held  for  the  dead,  and  the  natives  were  taught  to  march 
in  funeral  processions  and  to  carry  with  them  candles,  rice,  and  other 
offerings,  as  suffrages  by  the  faithful  for  the  peace  and  safety  of  the 
souls  of  the  departed. 

From  1596  to  191 2  these  missionary  labors,  both  Catholic  and 
Protestant,  have  penetrated  from  the  coast  but  a  few  miles  inland. 
The  vast  interior  of  the  Subanu  country  has  remained  untouched  by 
missionary  effort.  The  writer  in  1904  and  1905  traveled  about  2,000 
miles  on  foot  through  this  country  and  found  at  Sianib,  about  10  miles 
inland  on  the  Dipolog  River,  a  partially  constructed  building  of  poles 
and  grass,  which  the  Subanu  informed  him  had  been  built  at  the  behest 
of  the  Catholic  priests  at  Dipolog  and  Dapitan.     These  Subanu  made 


38  THE   SUBANU. 

early  inquiry  of  the  writer  as  to  the  attitude  of  the  new  government 
(American)  relative  to  religious  matters,  and  whether  or  not  they  must 
forego  their  native  worship  and  take  up  some  new  doctrine.  They 
were  informed  that  the  government  of  the  United  States  made  no 
attempt  to  control  a  man's  conscience  and  that  therefore  all  people 
under  the  new  management  were  at  liberty  to  hold  any  religious  beUef 
they  chose  to  follow;  that  any  and  all  religious  observances  and  doc- 
trines were  to  be  permitted  where  and  in  what  manner  their  advocates 
desired,  provided  such  action  did  not  contravene  the  law  of  the  land. 
This  announcement  was  greeted  with  smiles,  gesticulations  of  joy,  and 
much  excited  conversation  among  the  men  and  women.  The  meeting 
was  held  in  the  incompleted  church  building,  and  the  Subanu  were 
advised  to  finish  the  structure  and  that  it  could  be  used  for  reHgious  and 
secular  instruction.  But  on  the  occasion  of  the  writer's  next  visit, 
some  weeks  later,  it  was  found  that  the  building  had  been  destroyed  by 
fire,  whether  accidental  or  not  was  never  fully  ascertained.  At  the 
present  time  CathoUc  mission  work  among  the  Subanu  has  practically 
ceased. 

The  American  government  has  accompHshed  practically  nothing  in 
the  way  of  extending  the  pubhc  school  system  to  the  Subanu.  This 
has  been  due  in  part  to  lack  of  pubhc  funds  and  in  part  to  the  extreme 
isolation  of  the  people.  The  Catholic  missionaries  at  Dapitan  and 
Dipolog,  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Subanu  country,  still  maintain  paro- 
chial schools  at  the  rancherias  of  Toocan,  Matam,  Barcelona,  Langa- 
tian,  Dohinob,  Ilaya,  and  Polanco,  and  on  the  north  coast  at  Sauang, 
L-ibay,  and  Baliangao.  The  missionaries  on  the  east  coast  at  Langaran, 
Oroquieta,  and  Misamis  maintain  parochial  schools  for  the  Christian 
Filipinos,  but  the  Subanu  children  do  not  attend,  largely  because  it  is 
impracticable  for  them  to  make  the  long  journey  from  the  hills  to  the 
coast,  and,  finally,  the  question  of  association  with  a  race  of  heathen 
regarded  as  inferior  would  introduce  serious  elements  of  discord.  In 
those  schools  referred  to  as  being  established  on  the  north  and  west 
coasts  the  attendance  is  restricted  to  children  whose  parents  are  mem- 
bers in  good  standing  of  the  Catholic  church. 

All  the  towns  mentioned  are  within  3  miles  of  the  coast.  The 
Subanu  are  hill  people,  usually  residing  much  further  inland  and  in  any 
event  debarred  from  the  parochial  schools  because  of  religious  disquali- 
fication, and  prevented  from  entering  the  government  free  pubhc  schools 
because  such  schools  are  confined  to  the  largest  Christian  towns  and 
are  out  of  reach  and  still  more  out  of  sympathy  with  Pagan  surroundings 
and  customs. 

BURIAL  CUSTOMS. 

Where  death  results  from  ordinary  causes  the  body  is  usually 
buried  in  a  grove  of  trees  which  serves  as  a  cemetery  for  several  families. 
During  epidemics  of  smallpox  and  cholera  the  bodies  are  frequently 


MARRIAGE   AND   DIVORCE.  39 

left  in  the  abandoned  houses  and  may  be  consumed  by  the  hordes  of 
starveling  dogs  and  cats  that  always  infest  Subanu  settlements.  The 
balian,  man  or  woman,  is  called  in  to  minister  to  the  sick,  and  entire 
reliance  is  placed  upon  his  judgment  in  the  employment  of  herbs  and 
prayers  to  drive  away  the  evil  spirits  which  are  believed  to  produce 
the  illness.  Medicine  and  religion  are  so  closely  allied  in  daily  life  that 
the  herbs  used  in  medication  are  considered  quite  ineffective  unless 
administered  by  the  balian. 

If  the  deceased  is  a  male  adult  the  women  of  his  family  engage  in 
wild  lamentations  while  others  prepare  the  body  for  burial.  The  body 
may  be  encased  in  a  wooden  receptacle  hollowed  out  from  a  tree,  or 
wrapped  up  in  mats  securely  bound  about  with  strips  of  bejuco  or 
bamboo.  The  graves  are  marked  by  carved  pieces  of  wood  and  deco- 
rated by  a  varied  arrangement  of  stones  and  shells.  Bodies  are  some- 
times placed  for  burial  in  natural  caves  where  available,  and  in  the 
hollow  trunks  of  large  trees.  When  corpses  are  interred  the  pits  are 
always  shallow,  for  they  must  be  scooped  out  with  knives  and  the 
hands.  Therefore  the  graves  are  often  dug  open  by  wild  hogs  and 
dogs  and  the  bodies  devoured.  To  avoid  such  unearthing  the  dead 
from  isolated  families  are  buried  near  the  house  and  sometimes  under 
the  house,  especially  in  the  case  of  children.  In  some  cases  shelters 
are  erected  over  the  graves  and  the  spot  is  inclosed  with  a  fence  of  split 
bamboo  or  of  poles. 

During  epidemics  the  dead  are  sometimes  cast  into  the  rivers  and 
the  sea  in  order  to  destroy,  if  possible,  the  cause  of  the  contagion. 
The  Subanu  do  not  practise  cremation  in  disposing  of  the  dead.  They 
have  a  horror  of  thus  disposing  of  a  body  and  fear  the  condemnation 
which  may  follow  from  the  spirits  or  diuaia. 

MARRIAGE  AND  DIVORCE. 

Subanu  women  usually  marry  upon  arriving  at  the  age  of  puberty 
(about  13  years),  while  young  men  are  often  restricted  beyond  the  age 
of  puberty  by  the  necessity  of  providing  for  the  dowry,  which  must  be 
paid  to  the  father  of  the  bride  before  she  can  engage  in  the  marriage 
ceremony. 

The  Subanu  do  not  know  their  ages,  as  no  record  of  the  date  of 
birth  is  ever  kept  and  they  are  unable  to  read  or  write.  They  appre- 
ciate the  succession  of  day  and  night  and  count  a  period  of  days  by 
tying  knots  in  a  string  of  split  bejuco,  each  knot  representing  a  day  of 
light  and  a  day  of  darkness.  In  some  instances  a  separate  knot  is 
made  for  each. 

Marriage  among  the  Subanu  is  brought  about  through  the  efforts 
of  relatives  of  the  young  people,  especially  the  parents.  The  fathers, 
as  absolute  heads  of  their  families,  control  the  disposition  of  the  brides. 
They  fix  the  marriage  portion  and  determine  the  time  of  payment, 


40  THE  SUBANU. 

together  with  the  character  and  value  of  the  articles  composing  it. 
They  may  consist  of  rice,  palay,  cloth,  Chinese  jars,  articles  of  brass, 
weapons,  gongs,  and  domestic  animals.  Maidens  bring  a  better  price 
than  widows  or  divorced  women. 
^  '  The  father  of  the  bride  may  condition  his  acceptance  upon  a  period 
.^f  personal  service  by  the  young  man  in  the  bride's  family,  the  length 
of  such  service  to  be  fixed  by  the  father  of  the  young  woman,  subject 
to  modification  through  conferences  between  the  two  famiUes. 

A  plurality  of  wives  is  permissible  but  not  common,  mostly  for 
want  of  sufiicient  means  for  the  marriage  portion  and  to  pay  for  the 
ceremony  and  the  usual  feast  provided  for  relatives  and  friends.  Other 
restrictions  upon  marriage  arise  from  the  observances  of  consanguinity 
and  affinity.  Kinship  nearer  than  first  cousins  constitutes  a  bar  and 
usually  this  degree  of  relationship  is  prohibitive. 

Step-relationship  is  usually  a  bar  to  marriage,  although  marriages 
between  step-daughters  and  own  sons  of  the  same  family  are  sometimes 
permitted.  A  man  may  marry  more  than  one  daughter  from  the  same 
family,  and  cases  are  known  of  his  also  marrying  the  mother  of  the 
daughters. 

A  more  extraordinary  feature  of  the  Subanu  marriage  customs  is 
exhibited  where  a  man  marries  his  mother-in-law  who  is  divorced  or 
widowed,  even  while  the  daughter  is  hving  as  his  wife.  These  exhibi- 
tions of  variations  from  the  normal  customs  of  the  people  are  controlled 
by  personal  or  family  considerations,  present  at  the  time,  and  are  not 
generally  followed  or  approved  of. 

Violation  of  the  marriage  laws  is  punishable  by  fines  paid  to  the 
timuai  or  headman  of  each  Subanu  settlement,  and  these  laws  are  quite 
rigidly  enforced  through  pubHc  sentiment  and  good  faith. 

Neither  a  pregnant  woman  nor  her  husband  will  go  down  the  house 
steps  and  turn  back  before  reaching  the  ground.  A  pregnant  woman 
must  not  remove  a  pot  from  the  fire  and  then  put  it  on  again.  Neither 
a  pregnant  woman  nor  her  husband  may  tie  anything  about  the  neck 
before  the  birth  of  the  child.  Pregnant  women  are  enjoined  by  the 
balian  from  covering  their  breasts  during  pregnancy.  If  during  preg- 
nancy the  husband  ties  or  binds  up  things  in  the  house  where  his  wife 
remains,  such  action  may  result  in  fastening  the  child  to  the  mother 
and  destroy  its  life.  Some  few  days  before  the  birth  of  the  child  the 
father  must  refrain  from  all  excitement  in  order  not  to  attract  the 
attention  of  evil  spirits.  Any  difficulty  attending  birth  is  ascribed  to 
the  intervention  of  evil  spirits.  A  short  time  before  the  birth  of  the 
child  the  mother  is  placed  in  a  little  house  by  herself;  this  house  is 
called  gosina  and  is  temporarily  erected  for  the  purpose.  After  child- 
birth the  mother  submits  to  a  baking  process  by  lying  close  to  a  hot 
fire,  exposing  alternately  the  stomach  and  the  buttocks,  until  the  womb 
is  said  to  dry  up  and  there  is  no  more  discharge.     Diuing  the  pains  of 


MARRIAGE    AND    DIVORCE.  41 

childbirth  the  midwife  presses  hard  upon  the  chest  and  stomach  of  the 
mother,  with  her  hands  and  sometimes  her  knees,  to  prevent  the  child 
escaping  from  the  mouth  of  the  mother.  In  the  event  of  a  very  diffi- 
cult childbirth  a  balian  is  called  in  to  determine  what  particular  spirit 
or  diuata  is  angry  or  annoyed  by  the  approaching  birth  and  how  such 
spirit  may  be  appeased. 

Christie  records  the  note  that  in  punishment  of  incest  the  culprit 
is  set  in  a  wicker  cage  with  his  hands  tied  and  thrown  into  a  stream. 
This  note  of  an  isolated  fact  is  valuable  but  obscure.  We  comprehend 
it  only  through  recognition  of  the  same  manner  of  punishment  for 
marriage  within  the  forbidden  degrees  practised  by  the  Kayan  of  North 
Borneo,  also  a  fluviatile  people.  The  Kayan  inflict  this  death  penalty 
without  spilling  blood  in  order  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  paying  the 
blood  atonement.  Our  notes  lack  detail  upon  this  point  among  the 
Subanu,  but  the  occurrence  in  the  vocabulary  of  hangon  in  the  sense  of 
blood  money  shows  the  custom  to  be  operative  here  also. 

As  the  father  is  the  absolute  ruler  of  his  family,  so  he  may  put 
away  his  wife  by  divorce  for  good  and  sufficient  cause,  in  accordance 
with  the  customary  law. 

The  headman  sits  in  judgment  upon  the  application  for  divorce, 
which  may  be  made  by  either  party.  Violations  of  the  law  and  con- 
tumacy in  respect  of  the  decision  of  the  headman  are  punished  by  fine. 

Public  sentiment  is  against  divorce,  especially  if  there  are  children. 
The  usual  causes  for  divorce  are  steriUty,  adultery,  desertion,  and 
incompatibiUty  of  temper.  The  dowry  can  not  be  recovered  unless 
the  woman  secures  the  divorce. 

Under  the  general  designation  liingan  are  grouped  certain  customs 
which  are  the  rule  of  Hfe  for  widows  and  widowers.  After  the  death  of 
husband  or  wife  the  surviving  partner  must  wear  plain  clothing  of 
white  or  black,  must  refrain  from  all  dances  and  other  festivities,  avoid 
the  transaction  of  all  business,  and  generally  keep  as  far  as  possible 
within  the  seclusion  of  the  house.  An  unkempt  appearance  is  the  out- 
ward and  visible  sign  of  grief,  at  least  of  mourning,  and  to  attain  this 
lugubrious  appearance  the  reUct  must  take  no  baths  and  wash  no 
clothes.  The  period  of  this  mourning  is  set  by  the  performance  of  the 
two  funerary  celebrations,  the  buklug  timala  and  the  btiklug  puluntu. 


THE  SUBANU 

Studies  of  a  Sub  Visa yan  Mountain  Folk 
OF  Mindanao 


Part  II. 
Discussion  of  the  Linguistic  Material 

By  WILLIAM  CHURCHILL 

Honorary  Member  of  the  Polynesian  Society,  Corresponding  Member  of  the  Haivaiian 

Historical  Society,  Member  of  the  American  Philological  Association,  Felloav 

of  the  Royal  Anthropological  Institute  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 


CHAPTER  I. 
PITFALLS  OF  THE  VOCABULIST. 

The  material  upon  which  has  been  based  this  study  of  the  Subanu 
speech  was  collected  partly  by  Colonel  Finley  himself  during  the  active 
and  somewhat  militant  years  of  his  term  as  governor  of  Zamboanga  and 
partly  at  his  order  and  under  his  direction  by  such  assistants  as  he 
could  spare  from  the  exacting  details  of  his  administration.  The  exten- 
sion of  the  American  system  to  dominions  oversea,  the  adjustment  of 
American  polity  to  the  at  present  unassimilable  and  non-homogeneous 
peoples  of  a  distinctly  lower  culture  plane,  the  inopine  and  lightly 
assumed  administration  of  an  empire  through  the  machinery  of  a  loqua- 
cious democracy — all  these  things  at  the  beginning  of  but  their  second 
decade  are  yet  so  new  that  our  people  who  stay  at  home  in  ease  have  no 
slightest  conception  of  the  character  and  the  mass  of  administrative 
details  which  are  laid  upon  our  new  proconsulars. 

It  so  happens  that  I  know,  because  it  has  been  given  to  me  to  pass 
through  the  experience.  Designated  to  the  administration  of  one  of  the 
weak  kingdoms  of  the  Pacific,  primus  inter  pares  in  a  board  of  three 
consulars,  each  of  whom  had  the  absolute  right  of  veto,  sworn  to  admin- 
ister the  Berlin  General  Act,  which  was  fatally  defective  from  the  very 
beginning,  I  have  known  the  trials  of  ruling  the  kingdom  of  Samoa.  It 
has  fallen  to  my  lot  to  face  the  hostile  front  of  war  with  no  greater  show 
of  force  than  the  American  ensign  hoisted  aboard  a  21 -foot  rowboat, 
where  my  British  and  German  colleagues  could  back  their  authority 
with  steel  cruisers.  I  know  through  experience  the  hours  and  days  of 
talk,  the  tangle  of  plot  and  counterplot,  the  reams  of  paper  covered 
with  reports  never  to  be  comprehended  in  Washington,  time  working 
into  overtime  just  to  keep  the  peace.  I  can  sympathize  with  the  effort 
which  it  has  cost  my  collaborator,  the  sacrifice  which  it  has  meant  to 
him  of  rest  and  relaxation,  to  compile  this  material  which  he  has  put 
into  my  hands  for  study.  Better  than  others,  I  can  count  the  cost  of 
such  work  as  this,  done  under  trying  military  and  civil  conditions,  work 
in  a  field  which  lies  wholly  outside  his  professional  duty.  Therefore  I, 
at  least,  know  that  such  material  must  be  approached  with  sympathy 
as  well  as  reverence.  It  is  only  after  full  and  cordial  conference  with 
him  upon  the  subject  that  I  venture  upon  the  criticism  of  the  material. 

I  found  my  collaborator  anxious  that  the  data  should  be  discussed 
solely  upon  their  own  showing  and  without  consideration  of  the  circum- 
stances under  which  they  had  been  collected.  When  I  pointed  out  to 
him  that  other  vocabulists  had  been  confronted  with  the  same  unrecog- 
nized difficulties,  I  found  him  not  only  willing  but  enthusiastic  that,  in 

45 


46  THE   SUBANU. 

connection  with  the  critical  discussion  of  his  material,  I  should  write  a 
further  note  upon  the  general  theme  of  the  pitfalls  which  beset  the  first 
vocabulist  when  he  essays  the  task  of  collecting  the  words  of  a  speech 
hitherto  unrecorded.  So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  discover,  this  is  a 
chapter  of  practical  psychology  which  has  never  been  written. 

As  it  must  serve  as  an  apology  for  some  of  Colonel  Finley's  work  in 
the  field,  so  must  it  serve  quite  as  much  for  errors  into  which  later 
students  of  this  material,  now  for  the  first  time  presented,  will  discover 
that  I  have  fallen,  and  with  less  excuse,  since  my  work  has  been  prose- 
cuted with  assistance  of  library  facilities  and  in  conditions  which  better 
make  for  effective  research. 

These  data  have  been  presented  for  my  study  in  three  parcels,  each 
of  which  has  entailed  a  somewhat  different  method  of  examination. 

1.  The  text  of  Colonel  Finley's  geographical  and  ethnographical 
account  of  the  Subanu,  which  forms  Part  I  of  this  work.  In  this  I  have 
had  to  do  no  more  than  glean  the  vocables  incidentally  occurring  in 
the  narrative  and  to  check  them  into  their  proper  places  in  the  vocab- 
ularies already  compiled  from  the  two  parcels  next  to  be  mentioned. 

2.  A  collection  of  Subanu  words  with  their  English  translations, 
written  with  the  pen  and  covering  27  foolscap  folios.  This  record  is  of 
the  first  order,  for  it  is  an  original  record  and  presents  the  words  just  as 
they  impressed  Colonel  Finley's  ear  when  he  collected  them  from  his 
Subanu  informants.  In  several  particulars  the  spelling  differs  con- 
siderably from  that  which  obtains  in  the  third  item  and  which  I  have, 
for  reasons  later  to  be  noted,  adopted  as  the  preliminary  standard. 
Where  this  manuscript  duplicates  an  entry  in  the  other  record  I  have 
harmonized  the  spelling;  in  all  other  cases,  because  of  the  great  value 
which  the  original  record  will  have  for  phonetic  study,  I  have  refrained 
from  altering  the  spelling.  From  this  source  the  alphabet  acquires  the 
letter  k,  which  sound  in  the  other  source  is  uniformly  represented  by  C 
(qu  before  e  and  i) .  Similarly  this  collection  of  words  employs  g  before 
e  and  i  where  the  other  collection,  following  the  usage  of  written  Visa- 
yan  (in  which  the  Spanish  influence  of  the  friars  is  manifest),  employs 
gu.  These  points  will  be  more  fully  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  Subanu 
phonetics;  they  are  mentioned  here  solely  as  characterizing  this  material. 

This  manuscript  is  not  continuous ;  several  periods  of  activity  are 
indicated. 

a.  The  first  148  entries  are  words  and  phrases  collected  at  random, 
measures  of  capacity,  names  of  gods  and  heroes,  a  wealth  of  ethno- 
graphic material  which  has  been  transferred  to  appropriate  places  in 
Part  I,  where  it  more  properly  belongs  than  in  the  vocabulary. 

h.  This  section  is  based  upon  a  number  of  English  words  arranged 
in  alphabetical  order  with  Subanu  entries,  amounting  to  380  items;  the 
strict  alphabetization  is  interrupted  after  the  word  egg  by  the  interpola- 
tion of  48  items  of  numeration.     This  is  found  to  be  a  standardization 


PITFALLS   OF   THE   VOCABULIST.  47 

of  Christie's  vocabulary  of  the  Sindangan  river   mouth  with  many 
additions. 

c.  Without  mark  of  division  begins  a  second  Enghsh  alphabetiza- 
tion of  common  vocables  amounting  to  206  items.  This  is  based  on 
Christie's  vocabulary  of  Nueva  Reus. 

d.  In  the  same  abrupt  fashion  begins  yet  a  third  English  alpha- 
betization amounting  to  88  items. 

e.  A  brief  supplement  of  1 1  entries  without  order. 
The  sum  of  the  items  contained  in  this  material  is  881 . 

3.  A  collection  of  Subanu  words  typed  on  28  folios  closely  spaced. 
Each  folio  has  four  columns,  respectively  Subanu,  Visayan,  Spanish, 
and  English.     This  collection  also  exhibits  two  efforts. 

a.  The  earlier  8  folios  are  words  and  phrases  chosen  at  random, 
301  word  items,  47  phrases  ranging  in  relative  utility  from  "give  me  a 
drink"  to  the  ultimate  theology  of  "good  and  wicked  people  will  be 
well  distinguished  on  the  day  of  judgment." 

b.  Beginning  at  the  top  of  the  ninth  folio  the  material  is  alpha- 
betized by  the  Spanish  column  of  equivalents.  This  alphabetization 
goes  only  as  far  as  the  Spanish  initial  m  and  but  briefly  into  that 
section,  for  the  last  entry  is  under  malgastar.  In  each  initial  the  colla- 
tion has  been  done  very  lazily.  For  example,  the  entries  under  a  cease 
at  actwitdar,  65  entries  in  all.  Turning  next  to  b,  the  compiler  has 
entered  43  items,  under  c  44,  under  d  46,  under  e  67,  under  f  39,  under  g 
43,  under  h  44,  under  i  86,  under  j  22,  under  1  47,  under  m  24.  The 
sum  of  this  section  is  570  entries  and  the  sum  of  the  whole  collection  is 
918  items.  Including  the  sum  of  the  manuscript  material  with  that 
which  has  been  typed,  we  have  1,799  items,  many  of  the  items  contain- 
ing four  or  more  Subanu  vocables. 

It  is  this  third  group  of  Subanu  material  which  makes  it  pertinent 
to  give  here  some  detailed  attention  to  the  pitfalls  which  lie  in  wait  for 
the  unwary  and  the  untrained  vocabulist.  These  pitfalls  are  many 
and  well  hidden;  it  is  not  until  a  language  has  become  well  studied  that 
its  terrain  becomes  free  of  such  dangers,  and  even  then  it  is  but  a  small 
group  of  the  persons  born  to  any  speech  who  may  be  trusted  to  employ 
it  without  risk  to  themselves  and  to  their  hearers.  Far  worse,  then,  is 
the  plight  of  the  one  who,  without  a  safe  guide,  endeavors  to  thread  the 
way  of  reason  through  an  ill-comprehended  speech. 

Here  we  must  take  under  consideration  the  problem  of  what  trans- 
lation really  is.  Is  it  sufficient  to  take  this  or  any  sentence,  to  seek  in 
the  French,  the  German,  the  Ural-Altaic  dictionary,  as  you  will,  the 
recorded  equivalent  of  each  word  in  turn?  Have  we  done  all  when  we 
have  associated  these  equivalent  vocables  in  accordance  with  the  syntax 
of  the  language  into  which  we  are  supposably  translating? 

Who  eats  cherries?  It  will  make  a  large  Teutonic  difference 
whether  one  translates  wer  isst  or  wer  frisst. 


48  THE   SUBANU. 

Thus  we  see  that  there  is  something  more  than  mere  extraction 
from  a  dictionary  and  the  appUcation  of  rules  of  grammar.  The  essence 
of  translation  is  the  portage  from  one  mind  to  another  of  a  certain  defi- 
nite idea ;  the  form  of  words  is  but  the  least  of  the  agency  to  be  employed. 
The  schoolboy  construes  CcBsar  venit  in  Galliam  summa  diligentia  beau- 
tifully, as  coming  to  France  on  top  of  a  diligence,  and  is  sure  that  he  has 
rendered  unto  Caesar  as  by  law  required.  So  long  as  mere  words  out- 
rank sense  we  may  all  do  much  the  same  thing;  if  only  the  words  be 
sufiiciently  sonorous  we  call  it  oratory. 

With  pains,  with  the  skill  which  comes  from  use,  we  may  succeed  in 
expressing  our  thoughts  in  alien  speech  with  certainty,  provided  we  have 
the  same  sort  of  thought  as  that  which  our  hearer  possesses.  It  is  the 
portage  of  the  thought  which  alone  can  be  called  translation.  But  sup- 
pose the  hearer  has  no  such  thought  as  ours ;  suppose  his  mind  is  wholly 
incapable  of  such  thought.  Suppose  he  be  one  of  our  own  rude  folk  or 
one  of  a  folk  all  rude.     In  that  case  what  does  translation  become? 

On  the  path  toward  the  lower  culture  planes  with  which  we  shall  be 
engaged  in  these  studies  I  may  cite  an  instance  in  which  defective  trans- 
lation led  to  war  with  its  train  of  death.  After  years  of  distress  in 
Samoa,  three  great  nations  undertook  to  bring  the  blessings  of  peace, 
and  the  plenipotentiaries  of  Great  Britain,  of  the  United  States,  and  of 
Germany  met  in  Berlin.  After  long  deliberation,  indeed  after  many 
really  generous  sacrifices  of  national  ambitions  which  each  nation  con- 
tributed in  the  hope  of  peace,  there  was  formulated  a  constituent  treaty 
known  as  the  Berlin  General  Act.  In  this  document  it  was  provided 
that  Malietoa  Laupepa  should  be  king  of  Samoa.  The  plenipotentiaries 
understood  the  word,  king,  k"nig;  there  could  be  no  manner  of  doubt, 
even  the  American  member  had  some  recollection  of  George  III,  quite 
sufficient  to  fix  and  define  the  idea  to  his  comprehension.  Then  came 
the  translation  whereby  this  great  document  should  be  made  effective 
for  the  waiting  Samoans.  In  this  one  point  the  plenipotentiaries  had 
not  compared  their  faculties ;  they  had  not  thought  to  examine  whether 
they  had  the  faculty  of  translation.  To  put  the  accepted  text  into 
Samoan  words  was  not  difficult ;  the  English  masters  of  the  island  tongue 
declared  that  English  king  is  Samoan  tupu;  the  Germans  who  had  equal 
facility  with  that  tongue  agreed  that  German  konig  is  Samoan  tupu. 

Thus,  then,  it  came  into  Samoan ;  peace  was  to  rule  at  the  behest  of 
the  great  powers  of  the  earth  and  Malietoa  Laupepa  was  to  be  Samoa's 
tupu.  The  word  had  been  translated,  the  thought  had  failed  of  portage. 
The  brown  islander  under  his  palms  had  no  memory  of  Georgius  Tertius 
to  help  him  to  comprehension.  At  times  I  was  almost  moved  to  salute 
that  quiet  and  lovable  man  Laupepa  in  the  phrase  "O  king,  live  for- 
ever," for  I  knew  the  trouble  which  had  been  provided  for  the  succes- 
sion. But  his  own  tupu  trouble  came  to  harass  his  days  while  yet  he 
sat  upon  the  throne.     For  the  Samoan  tupu  is  he  who  rules  over  all 


PITFALLS  OF  the:   VOCABULIST.  49 

Samoa;  first  must  come  the  right  to  rule,  then  follows  the  title.  The 
right  inheres  in  the  possession  of  four  names  of  might  conferred  after 
a  rather  compHcated  system  based  on  traditional  custom  which  in 
another  connection  I  shall  have  to  present  at  length.  Here  it  suffices 
briefly  to  say  that  one  petty  village  community  has  the  right  to  confer — 
and  to  withdraw — the  name  of  Tui-Atua  and  with  it  the  right  to  rule  the 
district  of  Atua  and  its  family  dependencies;  another  has  the  right  to 
confer  the  name  of  Tui-'A'ana,  yet  others  the  names  of  Tamasoali'i  and 
Natoaitele  respectively.  In  each  case  the  right  to  withdraw  accompa- 
nies the  right  to  confer.  Who  holds  all  four  names  is  the  ruler  of  all 
Samoa,  its  tupu,  for  the  period  of  possession  of  the  four  names  as  much 
a  king  as  the  Samoans  can  imagine,  but  always  subject  to  inopportune 
subtraction.  And  because  the  high  plenipotentiaries  translated  their 
king  and  konig  with  all  the  connotation  of  right  divine  and  constitu- 
tional checks  into  this  temporary  and  amorphous  tupu  of  the  South 
Sea,  Samoa  knew  no  peace;  first  one  and  then  another  of  the  royal 
names  was  retracted  and  war  followed. 

We  may  find  the  same  sort  of  thing  much  nearer  home.  Popularly 
it  is  supposed  that  we  speak  the  same  language  in  America  and  in  parts 
of  Great  Britain;  when  hands  are  across  the  sea  we  try  to  glow  with 
after-dinner  satisfaction  that  our  mother  tongue  is  our  common  heri- 
tage. But  when  it  comes  to  the  usufruct  we  are  not  without  evidence 
that  need  exists  for  true  translation.  From  John  S.  Farmer's  Ameri- 
canisms, Old  and  New  I  extract  this  instance : 

Jag.  A  slang  term  for  an  umbrella,  possibly  from  the  article  being  so 
constantly  carried. 

He  came  in  very  late  (after  an  unsuccessful  effort  to  unlock  the  front  door  with  his 
umbrella)  through  an  unfastened  coal  hole  in  the  sidewalk.  Coming  to  himself  toward 
dayUght,  he  found  himself — spring  overcoat,  silk  hat,  jag  and  all — stretched  out  in  the 
bath  tub. — Albany  Journal,  1888. 

Yet  another  and  later  recorder,  J.  Redding  Ware,  in  Passing  Eng- 
lish of  the  Victorian  Era,  clearly  stands  without  the  interpreter's  house: 

Yaller  dog  (American).  Yellow  is  the  tint  of  most  dogs  in  America; 
hence  it  is  the  most  searching  term  of  ordinary  contempt. 

If  there  can  be  such  pitfalls  in  a  speech  supposedly  common,  think 
what  must  be  awaiting  the  men  who  make  the  first  record  of  newly  dis- 
covered tongues.  One  such  error  has  become  classic  in  all  the  lan- 
guages of  civilization;  its  error  has  almost  faded  from  memory;  our 
most  recent  authorities  now  essay  to  believe  that  it  was  no  error  at  all. 

When  Captain  Cook  discovered  the  coast  of  Australia  at  the  spot 
where  now  stands  a  thriving  city  bearing  his  name,  his  naturalist,  later 
to  become  the  great  Sir  Joseph  Banks  of  the  Royal  Society,  was  at  once 
attracted  by  the  great  marsupials  hopping  over  the  landscape.  The 
conditions  were  ideal  for  error.  Just  that  day  discovered,  the  aborigi- 
nes knew  no  English,  Banks  had  not  a  word  of  the  Australian  speech, 


50  THE  SUBANU. 

the  means  of  intercommunication  were  wholly  blocked.  Yet  still  the 
marsupials  hopped  hke  giant  grasshoppers,  a  sight  to  attract  any- 
naturalist  with  the  prospect  of  annexing  to  the  name  of  the  animal  nov. 
gen.  et  nov.  sp.  But  first  to  know  the  name.  One  may  readily  imagine 
the  naturaHst  inquiring  in  some  manner  of  broken  English,  for  Beach- 
la-Mar  was  not  for  a  generation  to  be  invented,  "and  now,  my  dear  man, 
what  may  be  the  name  of  that  most  extraordinary  animal  ?"  To  which 
the  answer  Ka  anguru.  And  by  others  confirmed  on  repeated  ques- 
tioning, Ka  anguru.  Thence  comes  into  our  languages  kangaroo.  It 
is  only  long  afterward,  when  men  have  settled  the  Australian  wild  and 
some  knowledge  of  the  speech  is  acquired,  that  it  is  learned  that  the 
answer  was  no  name  at  all,  but  simply  "I  do  not  understand." 

Very  similar  to  the  instance  of  the  kangaroo  is  an  item  in  the 
Subanu  material  which  I  have  been  elaborating.  In  one  of  the  manu- 
scripts which  have  come  to  me  (3-6)  is  the  entry : 

bicho  a  small  grub  or  insect         mananap  nong  mica  daay  ngalan. 

It  is  only  when  the  language  is  worked  out  that  we  find  even  this 
scanty  vocabulary  quite  sufficient  to  show  us  that  the  Subanu  words 
mean  only  "animal  without  a  name." 

Elsewhere  in  my  studies  upon  the  primitive  languages  of  the  Pacific 
{The  Polynesian  Wanderings,  page  365,  and  with  greater  fulness  in 
Easter  Island,  page  166),  I  have  remarked  upon  another  pitfall  of  the 
vocabulary.  This  was  the  case  of  the  acquisition  of  the  numerals  by 
means  of  the  finger  count.  It  was  shown  that  (by  reason  of  the  fact 
that  we  are  in  the  habit  of  counting  the  fingers  which  we  stick  up  to 
view  and  that  several  savage  races  count  the  fingers  which  are  flexed 
upon  the  palm)  it  has  more  than  once  happened  that  early  collectors  of 
speech  have  inverted  the  order  of  the  first  four  numerals  and  have  reg- 
istered the  further  note  that  the  savages  under  their  examination  were 
found  unable  to  count  as  high  as  five. 

Here,  too,  belongs  the  story  of  the  Island  of  Yesindeed.  Three 
names  of  European  shipmen  are  associated  with  the  discovery  of  Samoa. 
The  first  was  Roggeveen,  who  happened  upon  the  group  in  1722  and 
conferred  upon  'Upolu  a  name  out  of  the  United  Netherlands.  Second 
came  Bougainville  in  1768  and  designated  the  archipelago  the  lies  des 
Navigateurs.  In  1 787,  La  Perouse  entered  the  group  from  the  eastward 
and  found  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  the  name  of  Manu'a.  When  he 
reached  Tutuila  he  was  misled  by  the  name  Maunga,  which  is  titular  for 
the  chief  of  Pagopago,  or  else  by  the  same  word  used  as  a  common  noun 
to  designate  a  mountain,  for  he  charted  the  island  as  Maouna.  Stretch- 
ing westward  across  the  strait  which  now  parts  German  from  American 
Samoa,  he  named  'Upolu  Oyolava,  a  name  which  has  not  entirely  dis- 
appeared from  the  charts  and  which  commonly  persists  on  the  larger 
globes,  cartographic  material  less  frequently  subject  to  revision.     We 


PITFALLS  OF  THE   VOCABULIST.  51 

can  readily  reconstruct  in  imagination  the  question  which  La  Perouse 
put  to  his  Samoan  informant  from  whom  he  derived  what  he  took  to  be 
the  name  of  the  island.  Less  readily  can  we  reconstruct  what  the 
polite  and  always  suave  Samoan  thought  that  the  Frenchman  was  ask- 
ing him,  but  it  is  quite  clear  that  even  though  he  did  not  understand 
the  French  the  Samoan  was  filled  with  sufficient  bonhomie  to  reply 
ioe  lava.  Down  it  went  into  the  navigator's  notebook  as  the  name  of 
the  land.  We  who  understand  the  Samoan  smile  at  the  incident,  for 
ioe  lava  means  "yes,  indeed." 

Such  considerations  as  these,  and  I  have  but  skimmed  the  surface 
of  a  most  interesting  chapter  of  practical  philology,  should  make  it 
quite  clear  that  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  approach  the  original  record 
of  a  newly  discovered  speech  with  fear  and  trembling.  Into  my  hands 
have  been  placed  the  field  notes  of  discovery ;  their  immense  value  must 
be  recognized,  but  in  their  original  state  they  are  immense  in  the  sense 
in  which  the  Romans  used  the  term,  great  but  lacking  order.  With  an 
eye  for  the  pitfalls  I  have  sought  to  clear  the  path  whereupon  others 
may  safely  tread.  Many  errors  have  I  rectified;  that  many  more  still 
remain  is  undoubted. 

It  is  sufficient  satisfaction  for  the  present  to  feel  that  the  beginning 
has  been  made,  that  a  convenient  handbook  may  be  offered  to  those 
whose  duty  may  engage  them  in  this  field.  Thus  will  the  errors  be  cor- 
rected and  additions  will  surely  accrue  for  the  improvement  of  our 
knowledge.  Best  of  all,  this  small  vocabulary  will  serve  the  end  of 
social  betterment  and  help  to  a  poor  folk  who  from  their  own  kind  have 
met  with  nothing  but  rapine  and  toward  whom  we  have  assumed  a  duty 
of  protection  for  the  present  until  they  may  be  raised  to  the  point  where 
they  may  accept  the  good  we  offer  them. 

It  has  proved  of  interest  to  work  out  the  perturbation  factors 
which  affect  the  Subanu  source  designated  as  3  in  the  foregoing  account. 
From  my  collaborator  I  learn  that  the  work  was  done  by  two  collectors. 
The  former  list  (3-a)  was  collected  through  a  partially  tamed  Subanu 
who  had  a  knowledge  of  Visayan,  a  bilingual  assistant.  With  this 
information  it  is  possible  to  follow  out  his  method.  Against  such 
Subanu  words  as  he  saw  fit  to  record  he  set  the  Visayan  equivalent.  In 
further  development  by  another  hand  it  was  possible  from  the  Visayan 
vocable  to  pass  to  the  Spanish  and  thence  eventually  to  the  English, 

The  collector  of  the  larger  part  of  this  material  is  described  by 
Colonel  Finley  as  a  rather  bright  Visayan  who  was  employed  as  a  mu- 
chacho  by  one  of  the  Spanish  mission  priests.  He  was  trilingual;  in 
addition  to  his  proper  Visayan  he  comprehended  the  Subanu  in  one 
direction  and  to  a  certain  extent  the  Spanish  in  the  other.  Here  enters 
yet  another  factor,  one  which  has  been  of  great  assistance  to  me  in 
making  determinations  whereby  I  might  correct  the  errors  of  the  original 
text.     This  is  the  Visayan  dictionary  of  Fray  Juan  FeUx,  a  really  com- 


52  THE   SUBANU. 

mendable  piece  of  lexicography  to  have  been  accompUshed  by  one  quite 
ignorant  of  the  science  of  language.  The  edition  which  has  been  placed 
at  my  service  by  the  Librarian  of  Congress  is  entitled:  "Diccionario 
Bisaya-Espanol  (Espafiol-Bisaya)  compuesto  por  el  R.  P.  Fr.  Juan 
FeUx  de  la  Encamacion  .  .  .  tercera  edicion  aumentada  con  mas  de 
tres  mil  voces  por  el  R.  P.  Fr.  Jose  Sanchez;  Manila,  1885."  The 
Visayan  vocabulary  contains  some  12,000  items. 

In  my  earlier  characterization  of  this  section  of  the  material,  I 
pointed  out  that  the  collector  had  based  his  work  upon  a  Spanish  word- 
list  which  he  had  followed  somewhat  irregularly.  Upon  my  first  inspec- 
tion of  the  Visayan  dictionary  I  discovered  that  the  muchacho  had  saved 
himself  much  trouble  by  following  the  Spanish- Visayan  of  Fray  Juan 
Felix.  This  suspicion  was  fully  confirmed  when  I  made  the  discovery 
that  his  following  had  been  so  uninspired  that  he  had  followed  even  the 
typographical  errors.  The  only  difference  noted  is  that  he  seems  to 
have  used  a  dialectic  form  of  the  Visayan  slightly  variant  (particularly 
in  the  use  of  the  vowels  a  and  u)  from  the  standard  of  the  dictionary. 
This  is  matter  of  less  moment  when  we  find  that  the  reverend  lexi- 
cographer is  not  consistent  with  himself,  that  many  words  in  the 
Spanish- Visayan  vary,  not  only  in  vowels  but  in  consonants  as  well, 
from  the  forms  recorded  in  Visayan-Spanish. 

The  original  entries  seem  to  have  been  written  by  hand  with  pen  or 
pencil,  for  there  appears  a  constant  perturbation  factor  of  imperfectly 
legible  chirography.  This  has  produced  a  most  irregular  treatment  of 
the  composition  members;  at  times  they  are  united  with  the  stems  to 
which  they  apply,  at  other  times  they  stand  apart,  in  the  end  it  is  by  no 
means  certain  that  this  type  of  error  has  been  wholly  corrected.  In 
like  manner  such  independent  members  of  the  sentence  as  conjunctions 
are  found  joined  with  more  important  vocables ;  where  the  equivalent  in 
Visayan  has  not  been  discovered  it  has  proved  impossible  to  assort  these 
to  their  proper  places.  With  considerable  experience  of  the  haste  and 
the  bad  pen  of  unready  writers,  I  find  that  I  have  visualized  a  chir- 
ography for  this  stage  of  the  notes  and  have  had  to  exercise  my  wits  in 
detecting  error  attributable  to  bad  writing.  As  a  single  instance  from 
many  I  cite  the  entry  "patoel,  brother."  When  the  Visayan  gives  us 
patod  we  may  readily  see  that  we  are  not  dealing  with  an  anomalous 
mutation,  but  that  a  loosely  penned  d  has  been  misread  el  by  the 
transcriber. 

The  material  reached  its  second  stage  when  the  written  notes  were 
transcribed  upon  the  typewriter  by  some  clerical  assistant.  We  assume 
that  he  was  quite  ignorant  of  Subanu,  scantily  acquainted  with  the 
Visayan,  and  imperfectly  acquainted  with  Spanish,  as  is  the  wont  of  the 
enHsted  man  on  foreign  service.  At  this  stage  was  added  the  fourth 
column  of  text ;  against  the  triple  entry  of  Subanu-Visayan-Spanish  is 
now  set  the  English  equivalent.     Here  again  I  have  had  the  fortune  to 


PITFALLS  OF  THE  VOCABULIST.  53 

identify  the  manual  in  use,  Appleton's  Spanish  dictionary  of  1872, 
Seoane's  Neuman  and  Barretti  by  Velazquez.  In  adjusting  this  mate- 
rial to  the  growing  vocabulary  the  clerk  has  followed  consistently  an 
easily  identifiable  method.  In  all  cases  where  Seoane  renders  a  Spanish 
word  by  two  English  words  the  clerk  has  used  the  former.  The  result 
is  odd,  but  easily  corrigible  when  we  hold  his  manual.  Of  this  class  of 
error  I  cite  the  definition  of  gocsip  through  Spanish  Jalca  by  the  former 
of  Seoane's  renderings  "washboard;"  of  course  the  washboard  is  yet  a 
distant  culture  plane  above  the  laundry  requirements  of  these  savages, 
and  apart  from  this  a  priori  reasoning  the  Visayan  homologue  sipsip 
enables  us  to  discover,  with  the  assistance  of  Fray  Juan  Felix,  that  the 
object  is  really  a  wedge. 

In  this  stage  of  the  text  appears  yet  another  perturbation  factor, 
the  errors  of  the  typewriter.  Here  a  revising  hand  has  made  with  the 
pen  such  corrections  as  seemed  necessary.  I  instance  the  definition  of 
meaon  through  Visayan  mayahon  and  Spanish  enano  "dwarfish"  by  the 
typed  word  Awarfish;  here  the  corrector,  recognizing  that  there  was  no 
such  word,  has  drawn  his  pen  to  part  the  initial  A  from  warfish  and  has 
added  the  explicative  note  "fighting  fish."  It  was  no  more  than  a  slip 
of  the  finger,  the  a  key  was  hit  when  reaching  for  d. 

I  have  corrected  all  such  errors  as  the  use  of  the  method  of  com- 
parative study  has  shown  me.  I  can  not  feel  sure  that  I  have  cleared 
the  text  of  all  error,  that  would  be  too  much  to  expect ;  but  I  have  per- 
formed the  task  of  emendation  with  the  utmost  sympathy,  for  I  have 
had  abundant  experience  of  the  difiiculty  which  attends  the  student  of 
a  new-found  speech. 


CHAPTER  II. 

SUBANU  PHONETICS  AND  COMPOSITION  MEMBERS. 

The  alphabetical  system  employed  in  this  work  is  neither  consistent 
nor  particularly  to  be  commended.  Its  variety  has  indeed  arisen  in  the 
variety  of  the  sources  from  which  the  vocabulary  has  been  derived  and 
is  conditioned  by  the  various  influences  which  have  afifected  the  col- 
lectors. It  would  be  far  preferable  to  present  the  results  in  some  more 
acceptable  alphabet ;  in  view  of  the  fact  that  print  has  either  not  at  all 
as  yet,  or  only  very  slightly,  reached  these  Pagan  tribes  of  Mindanao,  it 
would  have  been  well  to  employ  the  scientific  alphabet.  But  in  these 
studies,  conducted  at  a  distance,  it  has  been  found  impracticable  to 
make  any  change  in  the  field  notes  as  provided. 

We  are  grateful  to  Cadmus  for  the  gift  of  letters,  but  gratitude 
toward  a  figure  dimly  seen  in  the  dawn  of  culture  can  not  blot  out  the 
sense  of  the  unfitness  of  these  things  which  must  come  over  us  in  the 
attempt  to  represent  new  languages  by  the  alphabetic  system  of  our 
own.  Letters  are  indeed  a  great  gift;  without  them  it  is  hard  to  con- 
ceive of  civiUzation  making  headway.  Cadmus  wedded  Harmony,  but 
the  inheritance  comes  not  from  the  distaff  side,  rather  the  seed  of  the 
dragon's  teeth  with  strife — and  spelling.  Scant  wonder  is  it  that  the 
marks,  whatever  they  may  have  been,  which  Bellerophon  bore  were 
described  as  ar^iiaza  hjypd. 

Indeed  it  is  a  dismal  task  to  seek  to  apply  the  six  and  twenty  signs 
of  our  alphabet  to  the  needs  of  a  foreign  speech,  to  employ  but  two 
dozen  (bakers'  tale)  symbols  in  representing  to  the  eye  a  series  of 
sounds  which  fall  but  little  short  of  four  score.  In  this  work  upon 
which  we  are  entering  we  shall  have  to  recognize  that  we  can  have  no 
more  than  an  approximation.  Recorded  in  the  Roman  alphabet  with 
no  suggestion  of  diacritical  marks  the  words  in  this  vocabulary  must 
be  regarded  as  but  sketches,  not  working  plans  drawn  to  scale;  the 
whole  topic  of  pronunciation,  directions  whereby  this  material  might 
be  placed  to  speech  use,  must  necessarily  be  omitted. 

The  influences  affecting  the  collectors  of  this  Subanu  material  vary 
in  terms  of  European  speech.  All  that  part  of  the  field  notes  which  is 
in  Colonel  Finley's  manuscript  is  naturally  reduced  to  conformity  with 
the  usage  of  the  English  alphabet,  and  doubtfully  placed  sounds  are 
reproduced  by  the  proximate  English  sound  most  familiar  upon  an 
American  ear.  It  is  thus  that  we  owe  to  this  influence  the  employment 
of  k  in  some  few  vocables  where  the  other  collectors  employ  C,  and  qu 
before  e  and  i. 

55 


56 


THE   SUBANU. 


That  somewhat  larger  part  of  the  vocabulary  which  rests  upon  the 
efforts,  such  as  they  are,  of  the  Subanu  informant  and  the  Visayan 
muchacho  has  been  brought  into  conformity  with  written  Visayan. 
That  speech  was  reduced  to  writing  by  Spanish  missionaries ;  therefore 
in  the  dictionary  of  Fray  Juan  Felix  we  find  the  custom  of  the  Spanish 
alphabet. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  we  miss  the  opportunity  to  correct  the  variety 
and  to  present  this  newly  recorded  speech  in  better  guise.  Yet  it  is 
really  less  to  be  regretted,  for  in  the  ordering  of  this  wild  community  it 
is  likely  that  for  a  long  time  to  come  intercourse  with  the  shy  moun- 
taineers will  most  commonly  be  conducted  through  Hispanized  Visayan 
intermediaries. 

The  following  notes  upon  the  phonetics  of  the  Subanu  are  supplied 
by  my  collaborator  and  are  presented  without  change,  for  their  impor- 
tance is  that  they  are  a  record  at  first  hand : 

The  vowels  have  generally  the  Continental 

value. 
The  doublet  oo  corresponds  to  Visayan  U. 
The  value  of  y  is  always  consonantal. 
The  c  is  always  hard. 
The  g  is  always  hard. 
a  has  the  broad  sound  as  in  mar. 
The  frequent  termination  aan  is  a  dissyllable. 
aay  is  a  syllable  and  diphthong. 
gu  is  used  before  e  and  i  to  preserve  the  hard 

sound  of  g  as  in  Spanish. 
o  is  sounded  as  in  move. 
gua  as  in  guano. 
au  as  ou  in  house. 
ao  as  ow  in  how. 
ay  has  the  diphthongal  sound  of  i  in  pine. 

With  these  notes  from  the  field  to  guide  us  and  with  the  assistance 
of  the  vocabulary  it  is  practicable  to  construct  the  alphabetic  scheme 
of  Subanu  as  shown  upon  the  following  table : 


qu  before  e  and  i  has  the  value  of  k  as  in 
Spanish. 

ng  has  the  sound  of  ng  in  singer. 

fig  has  the  doublet  (ngg)  sound  of  «g  in  finger. 

ua  has  the  value  of  wa  in  water. 

h  as  in  English. 

The  vowels  e  and  i  are  difficult  to  distinguish 
in  Subanu  pronunciation.  Sometimes 
the  same  difficulty  is  experienced  with 
the  vowels  o  and  u.  These  four  vowels 
are  not  always  used  in  the  same  manner 
by  the  same  speaker  at  different  times. 

gh  and  kh  are  harsh  guttural  sounds  some- 
times heard  in  Subanu  speech;  the 
sounds  are  not  found  in  English. 


y 

r,l 

w 

semivowels 

ng 

n 

m 

nasals 

h 

aspiration 

sonant     — 
surd         — 

s 

1 
J 

>    sibilant 

sonant      gh 
siu-d         kh 

"~" 

— 1 
—J 

>    spirant 

sonant      g 
surd         k 

d 

t 

b1 
PJ 

•    mute 

palatal 

lingual 

labi 

al 

series 

series 

serie 

-S. 

I  fiind  that  this  is  the  107th  time  I  have  published  the  alphabetic 
diagram  for  languages  of  my  study.  Out  of  this  frequency  of  use  has 
grown  famiUarity  and  fulness  of  comprehension.  I  regard  the  diagram 
as  far  more  than  a  convenience  in  the  presentation  of  the  alphabetic 
scheme  of  any  speech;  to  me  it  is  a  language  picture  by  which  it  is 


SUBANU   PHONETICS  AND   COMPOSITION  MEMBERS.  57 

possible  to  trace  the  family  resemblance  of  a  language  and  from  the 
resemblance  to  recognize  its  affiUation.  We  shall  now  advance  to  the 
interpretation  of  this  picture  of  the  Subanu. 

The  vowel  uncertainty  will  recur  in  the  last  chapter,  where  we  shall 
have  occasion  to  discuss  its  critical  value  in  the  solution  of  the  major 
problem  which  we  develop  in  these  studies. 

The  outhne  of  the  consonant  supply  upon  this  diagram  surely  has 
a  deep  linguistic  signification — one,  we  feel  confident,  not  beyond  our 
powers  of  interpreting.  A  lineal  presentation  of  the  consonant  element 
of  the  foregoing  tabulation  would  consist  of  a  square  lacking  its  east 
side.  The  upper  and  the  lower  bounding  lines  would  be  indicated  by 
heavier  lines  as  showing  that  along  those  lines  there  is  a  double  supply 
of  material;  the  west  boundary  would  be  lighter,  yet 
distinct  and  almost  complete.  Within  the  area  of  the 
square  would  be  set  a  dot  to  represent  that  a  single 
effort  has  been  made  to  fill  up  the  vacancy.  Before 
we  dismiss  the  Subanu  we  shall  find  that  the  simplicity 
of  such  a  graphic  method  as  this  will  faciUtate  the 
comparison  with  other  languages  and  speech  famihes 
which  exhibit  diagrams  of  different  construction. 

These  forms  are  not  without  meaning  in  the  history  of  speech 
development;  they  call  for  study  along  that  line  of  examination. 

It  will  be  granted  that  the  use  of  the  vowel  possibility  is  a  common 
possession  of  the  higher  orders  of  animal  life;  for  convenience  we  may 
regard  it  as  colimital  with  vertebrate  life.  By  vowel  possibiUty  we 
designate  such  arrangement  of  an  air-sack  and  resonating  chamber  as 
will  admit  of  the  formation  of  sounds  which  may  be  noise  when  pro- 
duced without  sentient  direction  and  which  may  become  musical  tones 
when  formed  by  more  or  less  purposeful  attention  to  the  method  of  pro- 
duction. The  vowels,  open-throated  sounds,  are  the  product  of  vibra- 
tion within  an  unstopped  column  of  air.  They  vary  according  as  one 
position  or  another  within  the  air-column  is  selected  as  the  point  of  pro- 
duction ;  they  vary  in  quality  according  as  these  soft-walled  resonating 
columns  differ  in  texture.  But  the  vowel  possibility  man  has  because 
he  has  the  acoustic  equipment  of  the  air-breathing  vertebrate.  That 
he  has  it  in  higher  degree  and  under  more  perfect  control  of  modulation 
we  may  ascribe  to  epochal  development  of  the  possibility  through  exer- 
cise in  purposeful  employment,  the  epochs  being  marked  along  the 
biologic  side,  of  which  the  possibilities  may  readily  be  seen  to  be  limit- 
less, by  evolution  into  new  species  and  genera. 

Whereas  the  vowel  is  of  the  type  of  vibration  in  an  open  air-pipe, 
the  consonant  is  dependent  wholly  upon  the  employment  of  stops  and 
closures  in  the  pipe  which  contains  the  vibrant  column  of  air,  and  in 
certain  of  its  features  it  depends  upon  the  added  fact  that  the  vibrant 
air  is  likewise  in  motion  of  progression  outward  and  therefore  exerts  a 


58  THE   SUBANU. 

certain  pressure  upon  the  point  of  stoppage.  Consonant  possibility  is  a 
late  acquisition  in  the  course  of  vertebrate  history.  We  are  in  a  posi- 
tion to  say  positively  that  it  is  limited  to  the  primates.  An  effort  is 
making  to  establish  the  possession  of  at  least  the  beginning  of  consonant 
possibility  in  certain  of  the  apes.  Just  in  passing,  entering  the  note  of 
recognition  that  this  question  is  yet  sub  jiidice,  we  may  properly  say 
that  the  power  to  make  the  closures  of  the  vocal  organism  whence  con- 
sonants come  into  speech  is  the  peculiar  possession  of  the  present  type 
of  man.  The  qualification  is  forced  upon  us  by  the  recent  discovery  of 
human  remains  in  England,  to  which  has  been  given  the  name  Eoan- 
thropos,  for  if  we  may  rely  upon  the  collation  of  skull  fragments  upon 
which  the  genus  has  been  erected  we  find  abundant  anatomical  reason 
to  believe  that  this  was  man  who  was  speechless. 

It  is  an  early  postulate  that  speech  makes  the  man.  He  who  has 
the  form  and  stature  of  a  man  but  speaks  not,  he  is  an  idiot  and  he 
gibbers.  He  who  is  but  the  beginning  of  a  man  and  can  not  yet  speak, 
he  is  an  infant,  infans  because  he  can  not  speak,  vi^mo^  since  he  has  no 
words,  the  vr^rua  rsKva  of  Homer  come  to  mind.  It  is  only  in  the 
Semitic  system  that  out  of  the  mouths  of  babes  and  sucklings  is  strength 
established,  and  that  is  the  imagery  of  revelation  rather  than  the  keen 
sense  of  primal  observation. 

This  is  not  merely  a  postulate  of  the  classical  tongues  of  our  own 
high  race.  I  find  it  in  the  use  of  an  African  folk  with  scarcely  more 
than  an  entering  foot  over  the  threshold  of  human  culture,  as  we  may 
read  in  EHenberger's  History  of  the  Basuto,  ancient  and  modern''  at 
page  XXI. 

Bantu  is  the  plural  of  Muntu,  the  Kaffir  and  Zulu  word  for  a  human  being. 
The  equivalent  in  Sesuto  is  motho  with  the  letter  h  to  accentuate  the  intonation. 
But  the  word  muntu  or  rtiotho  means  more  than  that:  it  indicates  the  power 
of  speech  as  well,  a  speaking  being  as  distinct  from  monkeys  or  baboons,  who 
have  something  like  a  human  shape  but  can  not  speak.  A  child  before  it  has 
learned  to  speak  is  ngoana,  that  is,  a  little  being;  mo,  the  prefix  denoting 
being,  being  changed  into  ngo  for  the  sake  of  euphony;  and  the  diminutive 
suffix  ana.  But  as  soon  as  the  child  has  learned  to  speak,  the  tho,  denoting 
speech,  is  placed  between  prefix  and  suffix,  and  the  little  being  becomes 
mothoana,  a  little  being  which  can  talk. 

Here  we  have  two  instances :  one  is  derived  from  the  childish  estate 
of  a  culture  which  has  come  to  high  maturity,  the  other  is  drawn  from 
a  low  culture  plane  where  man  is  all  child;  the  two  are  in  accord. 
Who  speaks,  he  is  man. 

Nor  is  the  possession  of  the  consonants  evenly  divided  among  man- 
kind. There  are  races  which  have  but  a  few  of  the  speech  consonants 
in  possession.  There  are  races,  and  in  this  category  we  are  numbered, 
which  have  through  disuse  lost  the  power  of  forming  certain  consonants 
which  once  were  in  possession.     We  shall  soon  have  to  examine  the  con- 


SUBANU   PHONETICS   AND   COMPOSITION   MEMBERS.  59 

sonant  scale  of  the  Subanu  in  order  to  see  where  they  He  in  relation  to 
neighboring  speech-families. 

Because  of  the  structure  of  the  vocal  organs  we  shall  follow  a  natu- 
ral method  of  study  of  this  consonant  diagram  if  in  certain  areas  we  deal 
with  its  horizontal  members,  in  other  areas  if  we  direct  the  attention 
more  particularly  upon  its  vertical  columns.  At  three  distinct  points 
near  the  outer  end  of  the  vibrant  column  of  air  we  possess  organs 
whereby  closures  may  be  made  and  from  these  closures  consonants  may 
be  produced.  These  are  the  palate  in  the  rear  of  the  mouth-cavity, 
the  tongue  centrally  situated  within  the  cavity,  the  lips  at  the  front  of 
the  cavity.  Furthermore,  at  each  of  these  closure-points  the  closure 
may  be  of  any  degree  of  completeness,  and  from  this  arises  variety  of 
sound  there  produced. 

Our  first  horizontal  member  includes  the  semivowels.  These  are 
practically  universal  in  human  speech;  upon  a  priori  grounds  we  should 
expect  so  to  find  them;  their  general  presence  is  confirmatory  of  the 
view  that  they  represent  the  beginning  of  the  acquisition  of  consonant 
power.  All  the  vowels  are  formed  with  open  throat ;  the  true  consonants 
are  made  with  closures  by  palate,  tongue  and  lips.  It  will  be  seen  by 
simple  experiment  how  these  semivowels  are  formed.  A  light  applica- 
tion of  the  fingers  to  the  throat  and  lips  will  readily  enable  any  one  to 
identify  the  position  in  which  any  given  sound  is  made.  Thus  we  are 
able  to  discover  that  the  y  semivowel  is  formed  near  the  palate,  the  r 
and  the  1  in  slightly  different  forms  near  the  center  of  the  cavity  where 
the  tongue  is  dominant,  the  W  near  the  lips.  The  same  digital  exami- 
nation will  show  after  what  manner  they  differ  from  the  vowels  proxi- 
mate to  those  positions,  how  i  and  y  are  not  quite  the  same,  a  slightly 
varies  from  r  and  1,  u  and  w  differ.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  semivowels 
vary  from  the  vowels  in  one  direction,  from  the  consonants  in  the  other, 
in  this  important  particular  that  the  vibrant  air-column  is  less  open 
than  in  the  case  of  the  vowels,  less  closed  than  in  the  case  of  the  conso- 
nants. In  other  words  there  is  a  constriction  instead  of  a  closure;  the 
sounding  pipe  is  not  closed  but  it  is  constricted.  Because  this  effect 
is  an  incomplete  exercise  of  the  power  of  each  of  these  speech  organs 
these  semivowels  are  set  upon  our  diagram  not  exactly  in  the  palatal, 
Hngual,  and  labial  columns,  but  proximate  thereto. 

The  next  horizontal  member  is  a  triplet  of  consonants  denominated 
the  nasals.  Here  we  should  pause  for  a  moment  in  order  to  avoid  con- 
fusion with  an  idea  subsisting  in  our  common  speech  and  likely  to  lead 
us  astray.  Of  certain  individuals  in  all  our  Enghsh  societies,  even  of 
certain  groups  of  individuals  where  the  blemish  in  speech  is  so  frequent 
that  we  incline  to  consider  it  a  dialectic  character,  we  commonly  say 
that  they  speak  through  the  nose.  We  use  this  expression  quia  nemo 
scit;  for  the  briefest  examination  of  this  speech-fault  will  convince  U3 
that  "speaking  through  the  nose"  is  really  speech  with  the  nasal  cavity 


60  THE   SUBANU. 

shut  off,  it  is  objectionable  to  our  educated  ears  simply  for  the  reason 
that  we  miss  the  supporting  tones  which  have  their  origin  in  the  upper 
air-passage. 

The  nasal  consonants  are  really  formed  by  dropping  the  veil  of  the 
palate  and  thereby  opening  to  the  passage  of  sound  vibrations  the  nasal 
cavity  with  its  twin  exits.  While  the  passage  of  the  sound  is  thus 
diverted  in  a  high  degree  (for  we  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  this 
diversion  is  always  present  in  a  minor  degree),  the  distinctive  character 
of  the  sound  is  formed  by  the  adjustment  of  the  three  consonant- 
producing  organs  to  their  peculiar  positions  of  control.  Here,  also, 
digital  examination  will  readily  disclose  the  positions  within  the  mouth- 
cavity  out  of  which  arise  these  three  consonants,  and  the  attention 
directed  to  the  perception  of  the  vibration  of  the  air-column  will  soon 
discover  the  course  of  the  vibrations  through  the  upper  cavity. 

The  possession  and  employment  of  the  three  nasals  vary  Vvddely  in 
the  languages  of  men.  The  labial  nasal  m  appears  to  be  everywhere 
present  in  speech.  This  universality  is  not  difficult  to  comprehend. 
While  the  consonants  producible  by  the  lips  may  require  such  precision 
in  positioning  the  organs  and  such  a  fine  sense  of  synchronization  with 
the  outward  impulse  of  the  air  as  to  lie  wholly  outside  the  possibilities 
of  many,  if  not  most,  of  the  more  primitive  languages,  the  m  position  is 
the  simplest  exercise  of  speech  mechanism.  Assuming  the  dropping  of 
the  veil  of  the  palate  and  the  quiescence  of  the  two  rearward  speech- 
organs  when  the  sound  vibrations  are  about  to  issue,  the  result  depends 
upon  the  position  of  the  upper  and  nether  lip  relative  to  themselves 
and  therefore  to  the  sound-pipe.  So  long  as  the  lips  are  not  in  contact 
with  one  another,  the  sound  which  issues  is  vocaUc,  and  this  holds 
equally  true  whether  the  lips  are  wide  apart  (as  in  the  vociferous  shout) 
or  closely  approximated  (as  in  the  production  of  the  French  vowel  u) . 
But  if  the  lips  come  together  in  any  one  individual  for  but  the  briefest 
touch,  we  find  that  we  have  passed  from  vowel  to  consonant,  the  m  is 
produced. 

There  is  abundant  reason  to  regard  this  consonant  as  the  earliest 
acquisition  of  man  and  the  foundation  of  human  speech  as  consciously 
differentiated  from  the  animal  cry  wholly  vocalic.  It  is  so  light  a 
difference  that  we  incline  to  delude  ourselves  that  some  at  least  of 
the  animals  possess  this  or  the  lingual  or  the  palatal  nasals.  This  is 
evidenced  by  our  onomatopoetic  names  for  common  animal  cries,  the 
bovine  "moo,"  the  "neigh"  of  the  horse,  the  "cock-a-doodle-doo"  of  the 
barnyard  fowl,  even  one  slight  step  further  in  consonant  development 
in  the  Cockney  cry  of  the  burro  "hee-haw. ' '  A  careful  ear  will  soon  dis- 
cover that  none  of  these  animals  shares  our  consonant  possibilities ;  the 
effect  is  an  error  of  interpretation  in  the  human  ear ;  what  is  really  heard 
when  these  familiar  animals  vocalize  is  the  appulse,  the  abrupt  incep- 
tion of  the  sound.     This  confusion  all  the  more  readily  arises  since  the 


SUBANU   PHONETICS  AND   COMPOSITION   MEMBERS.  61 

nasals  are  of  the  class  of  consonants  denominated  sonant — that  is  to 
say,  the  sound  is  produced  just  before  the  closure  is  applied  to  the 
vibrant  column. 

It  will  be  understood  that  no  consonant  is  a  sound  in  itself;  it  is 
only  a  modulant  of  the  sonorous  vibrating  medium  which,  without  such 
modulant,  would  produce  no  more  than  a  vocalic  sound.  The  nasals 
are  therefore  terminal  of  the  sound.  This  is  readily  seen  in  what  we 
know  as  mumbling,  a  name  in  which  the  use  of  the  labial  nasal  plainly 
appears.  With  the  lips  wholly  closed  we  find  it  possible  to  hear  our- 
selves say  "um-um,"  but  we  find  it  wholly  impossible  to  produce  that 
primitive  consonant  in  the  closed  mouth  if  we  attempt  it  in  the  initial 
position  as  "mu-mu.'' 

The  lingual  nasal  n  is  also  a  common  property  of  most  speech.  It 
is  frequently  subject  to  mutation  along  the  vertical  column  of  the  pos- 
sibilities of  tongue  positioning  within  the  buccal  cavity;  less  frequently 
it  tends  to  undergo  an  exchange  with  the  palatal  nasal ;  but  in  the  main 
we  are  justified  in  regarding  it  as  among  the  more  permanent  posses- 
sions of  speech  equipment. 

The  palatal  nasal  ng  is  in  a  marked  degree  less  general  and  less 
permanent.  To  many  languages  it  is  missing;  few  of  those  which  pos- 
sess it  can  employ  it  in  the  initial  position.  We  may  see  this  in  our  own 
speech.  We  find  a  marked  difficulty  in  using  it  as  an  initial  when  we 
attempt  to  acquire  facility  in  languages  which  employ  it  at  the  begin- 
ning of  words.  Even  in  the  final  position  it  is  subject  to  alteration 
along  two  distinct  lines.  In  Oxford  English  of  the  present  time  speakers 
who  profess  their  good  taste  say  "comin"  and  "goin"  and  the  like  in 
the  common  present  participle  termination.  Those  who  employ  this 
manner  of  speech  write  the  words,  when  they  wish  to  indicate  their 
pronunciation,  as  "comin' "  and  "goin'  "  and  would  describe  the  event 
as  dropping  the  g.  This  is  an  absurd  misconception  of  the  mutation 
which  takes  place ;  in  ng  there  is  no  g  to  drop  except  in  so  far  as  to  the 
eye  we  use  n  and  g  in  juxtaposition  to  serve  as  the  symbol  of  a  simple 
consonant  which  in  the  scientific  alphabet  and  in  any  other  reasonable 
alphabetic  system  is  represented  by  a  single  character.  What  really 
happens  is  this :  the  palate,  a  peculiarly  blunt  and  coarse  organ  of  speech, 
being  insufficiently  under  the  fine  control  needed  to  give  its  nasal  the 
true  value,  the  more  facile  tongue  is  employed  instead  and  we  thus  find 
n  in  the  place  of  ng.  The  second  mutation,  a  pecuHarly  vulgar  error,  is 
based  upon  the  same  inabiHty  to  adjust  the  palate  to  its  true  position 
for  this  modulant.  After  taking  the  proper  position  at  the  beginning 
of  the  sound  the  palate  gUdes  into  its  ultimate  position,  which  is  more 
easily  held.  TheTesult  is  that  instead  of  a  clear  ng  we  have  a  double 
sound  in  which  the  nasal  serves  but  as  preface  to  the  mute,  ng  termin- 
ated by  g  as  a  sonant,  ng  terminated  by  k  as  a  surd.  This  is  found  in 
several  of  the  vulgar  dialects  of  England  and  is  beginning  to  find  a  place 


62  THE  SUBANU. 

in  the  careless  and  uneducated  speech  of  our  own  recent  immigrants.  In 
a  recent  circular  of  instructions  issued  by  the  school  department  of  New 
York  City  it  was  considered  proper  to  advise  teachers  to  observe  and 
to  try  to  correct  such  pronunciations  as  "sing-ging"  and  "anythingk." 

So  far  we  have  passed  under  review  the  heavy  outline  at  the  top  of 
the  incomplete  square  which  we  observe  in  the  diagram  of  the  Subanu 
consonant  scheme.  Having  discussed  the  individual  consonants  which 
make  up  that  heavy  line  in  detail,  we  may  now  sum  up  the  underlying 
principle.  We  find  that  the  Subanu  have  acquired  the  constrictions  at 
each  of  the  three  consonant-producing  positions  which  are  the  semi- 
vowel bridges  over  which  development  passes  through  practice  to  the 
exertion  of  the  true  consonant-forming  closures.  We  further  find  that 
the  Subanu  have  acquired  the  closures  of  each  of  the  three  speech- 
organs  in  their  lightest  force. 

Now  we  shall  pass  to  the  heavy  outline  which  forms  the  bottom  of 
the  incomplete  square ;  we  distinguish  it  as  heavy  for  the  reason  that 
we  have  a  double  equipment  in  all  the  mutes,  the  sonant  as  well  as  the 
surd.  When  we  come  to  the  comparison  of  the  Subanu  with  certain 
other  languages  with  which  it  has  been  sought  to  associate  the  Malayan 
languages,  we  shall  note  that  many  languages  lack  this  double  equip- 
ment and  we  shall  find  therein  a  critical  character. 

It  is  a  long  leap  from  the  top  of  the  square  to  its  bottom.  Yet  in 
making  it  we  are  not  carried  away  by  the  enticing  force  of  an  illustra- 
tion, great  and  misleading  though  such  enticement  might  prove.  It 
is  just  that  long  leap  which  is  taken  in  the  development  of  speech  facility. 
In  another  connection  {Easter  Island,  page  i8)  I  have  discussed  this 
matter  at  greater  length  than  here  seems  necessary.  It  suffices  to  note 
that  next  after  the  easy  nasals  the  speech-power  passes  to  the  utmost 
attainment  of  the  mutes.     This  we  find  to  be  the  case  in  the  Subanu. 

It  would  be  idle  to  attempt  to  calculate  the  number  of  positions 
which  may  be  taken  by  any  one  of  the  speech-organs.  Undoubtedly 
between  the  limiting  positions  which  establish  the  nasal  and  the  mute 
each  organ  may  assume  a  great  many  positions,  but  we  need  concern 
ourselves  with  but  two  or  three  or  four  positions  at  most.  These  serve 
to  establish  the  different  classes  of  consonants  which  have  been  found 
sufficiently  distinct  to  serve  the  ends  of  clearly  articulated  speech. 
They  do  not  exactly  correspond  in  all  languages.  In  any  language  they 
do  not  exactly  correspond  for  all  speakers ;  it  is  that  quality  which  gives 
to  human  speech  characters  whereby  we  may,  though  tone  deaf,  identify 
our  friends  in  the  darkest  night  if  they  will  but  speak  to  us,  or  by  modem 
miracle  (now  become  a  necessity  of  life)  we  may  distinguish  a  familiar 
voice  over  miles  of  copper  wire  or  when  ground  out  from  a  wax  cylinder 
or  composition  disk,  so  that  even  the  dogs  may  sit  up  and  take  notice. 

In  our  own  English  we  have  adopted  four  distinctive  positions  for 
the  palate  and  the  tongue  and  three  for  the  lips ;  in  each  case  two  of 


SUBANU   PHONETICS   AND   COMPOSITION   MEMBERS.  63 

these  positions  are  limiting,  two  and  two  and  one  are  intermediate.  It 
is  in  regard  of  these  intermediate  positions  that  we  estimate  the  devel- 
opment of  languages  as  a  matter  of  evolutionary  history  and  that  we 
evaluate  their  orthoepic  richness  as  determining  their  flexibility  and 
beauty  of  efficiency  as  a  means  of  communicating  thought. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  palate  as  a  blunt  organ.  It  is  so 
seen  to  be  on  anatomic  examination.  Its  movements  and  practical 
positions  relative  to  the  column  of  vibrant  air  are  few.  It  is  just  such 
a  coarse  speech-organ  as  would  serve  the  uses  of  a  people  to  whom  nice- 
ties of  pronunciation  remain  yet  needless.  The  tongue  we  see  to  be  far 
other.  In  its  speech  use  it  has  two  forms  of  activity  which  operate 
singly  or  in  conjunction :  by  changes  in  the  form  of  its  thicker  body  it  is 
able  to  alter  the  shape  of  the  central  cavity  of  the  mouth;  by  the  pre- 
cision with  which  its  flexible  tip  may  be  applied  to  one  point  or  other 
of  the  containing  walls  it  may  produce  almost  an  infinitude  of  consonant 
modulants ;  at  one  extremity  of  its  applicability  it  may  compose  with 
certain  palatal  positions  to  produce  linguo-palatal  sounds ;  at  the  other 
extremity  it  may  compose  with  the  inner  aspect  of  the  lips  to  produce 
linguo-labial  sounds  and  in  the  same  region  with  the  teeth  and  gums 
to  produce  yet  other  sounds.  In  the  arts  the  finer  tools  of  precision 
are  useless  in  prentice  hands;  training  and  skill  are  required  before 
they  can  be  economically  employed.  So  with  men  to  whom  speech  is 
yet  an  early  and  imperfect  acquisition  we  should  expect  to  find,  we  do 
in  fact  find,  that  the  prodigious  flexibility  of  the  tongue  is  used  in  its 
least  degree. 

The  lips  again  are  extremely  mobile  organs.  These  "leaves  of  the 
mouth,"  as  the  Polynesian  people  denominate  them,  are  capable  of  a 
great  variety  of  closure  which  may  impose  upon  the  issuing  vibrations 
of  sound  the  last  determining  modification.  The  essential  character 
of  the  tongue  is  its  great  flexibility ;  the  essential  character  of  the  lips 
is  their  applicability  to  great  refinements  of  precision.  The  positioning 
of  the  lips  plays  a  part  so  large  in  our  own  speech  that  it  has  been  found 
possible  to  teach  the  deaf  to  see  speech  by  reading  the  lips.  It  would 
be  interesting  to  learn  to  what  extent  lip-reading  might  apply  to  the 
case  of  the  ruder  folk  who  have  not  yet  acquired  distinct  control  of  these 
organs.  In  a  computation  of  the  frequency  of  sounds  in  English  and 
in  vSamoan  I  have  shown  that  in  speech  involving  i  ,000  occurrences  of 
the  most  frequent  vowel  sound  the  English  employs  the  labials  908 
times,  the  Samoan  but  378.  The  labials  are  the  last  possession  to  be 
added  to  man's  speech  equipment,  just  as  the  lips  are  the  last  to  come 
under  control  of  their  fine  musculature.  We  employ  but  one  of  the 
possible  intermediate  closures  of  the  lips  in  its  dual  phase  of  V  sonant 
and  f  surd ;  some  other  languages  make  better  use  of  the  paired  organs ; 
many  languages  there  are  which  have  either  not  attained  at  all  to  any 
but  the  limiting  Hp  closures  or,  if  they  have  found  the  possibility  of 


64  THE^SUBANU. 

intermediate  closures,  have  not  yet  attained  to  precision  in  their  use. 
The  Subanu  have  not  attained  them  at  all.  It  is  for  that  reason  that 
the  typical  square  of  their  consonant  scheme  is  left  open  on  that  side. 

On  the  other  side,  the  bounding  line  of  the  palatal  series  is  as  com- 
plete as  in  English,  though  in  a  slightly  different  sense.  Of  the  two 
principal  and  generally  occurring  intermediate  closures  we  have  per- 
mitted disuse  to  overcome  the  spirants  gh  and  kh ;  the  latter  we  seem  to 
have  rejected  early  in  our  speech  history  and  to  have  selected  the  sonant 
in  preference  over  the  surd ;  the  former  yet  remains  present  to  the  eye 
and  a  torment  to  our  conservative  orthography,  as  in  "  neighbor, "which 
also  exhibits  the  passage  from  the  kh  of  nachbar  to  the  sonant,  yet  in 
sound  it  has  vanished.  The  Subanu  have  attained  to  the  use  of  the  pal- 
atal spirant  in  both  its  phases ;  our  palatal  sibilants,  zh  and  sh,  have  not 
yet  been  acquired. 

In  the  lingual  series  the  Subanu  has  estabhshed  the  Umiting  clos- 
ures— at  the  hither  end  the  semivowel  in  its  double  phase,  the  nasal ;  at 
the  distal  end  the  mute  in  its  two  phases ;  in  the  intermediate  space  we 
employ  with  beautiful  accuracy  the  spirant  and  the  sibilant,  each  in  its 
two  phases ;  the  Subanu  has  acquired  no  more  than  a  single  one  of  these 
four  possible  consonants,  the  surd  lingual  sibilant  S. 

There  remains  now  for  consideration  the  aspiration,  an  activity  of 
speech  so  anomalous  that  in  our  diagram  we  set  it  to  one  side  and  on  the 
margin,  because  it  does  not  seem  possible  to  associate  it  with  any  of  the 
speech-organs.  It  is  present  in  Subanu,  but  its  use  appears  scanty  in 
this  vocabulary  material ;  it  is  frequently  dropped  from  situations  where 
the  intimately  allied  Visayan  shows  that  it  might  be  employed  except 
for  dialectic  preference.  There  is  really  in  this  material  so  little  bearing 
upon  its  phonetic  place  that  I  have  been  content  to  make  but  a  single 
entry  upon  the  diagram.  In  other  studies  based  upon  richer  material  I 
have  shown  that  there  is  an  aspiration  proximate  to  the  palate,  an  aspi- 
ration proximate  to  the  tongue,  and  an  aspiration  proximate  to  the  lips. 

In  speech  sounds  are  employed  singly  or  in  combination.  Thus  we 
arrive  at  the  need  to  study  the  syllable  as  a  secondary  unit  of  the  spoken 
word.  The  sounds  which  may  be  employed  singly  are  the  vowels ;  their 
number  is  but  small.  Bach  vowel  may  enter  into  composition  with  one 
or  more  consonants  in  two  positions,  in  either  one  or  both.  Conven- 
ience in  study  has  led  to  the  classification  of  these  secondary  units  as 
open  or  closed  syllables,  according  as  the  vowel  sound  is  final  or  is  closed 
by  consonant  modulation.  There  is  more  than  convenience  in  this 
classification;  languages  fall  into  two  primordial  classes  according  as 
the  syllables  are  of  open  or  closed  type.  We  then  have  the  following 
varieties  of  syllables,  two  for  each  type:  open  syllables,  vowel  alone, 
consonant-vowel ;  closed  syllables,  vowel-consonant,  consonant-vowel- 
consonant.  The  Subanu  exhibits  all  four  varieties  of  syllables;  it  is 
therefore  a  language  of  the  closed  type.     To  such  an  extent  does  the 


SUBANU  PHONETICS  AND   COMPOSITION  MEMBERS.  65 

disposition  toward  this  character  hold  that  we  shall  soon  have  occasion 
to  note  the  somewhat  frequent  assumption  of  a  final  consonant  by  stems 
which  the  Subanu  have  taken  on  loan  from  languages  of  the  open  type. 

Premising  that  the  data  upon  which  we  are  working  lack  much  in 
the  matter  of  extent,  and  that  final  accuracy  of  form  is  too  much  to 
expect  in  the  conditions  in  which  this  Philippine  speech  finds  its  intro- 
duction to  science,  we  shall  find  an  interest  in  examining  some  of  the 
distinctive  characters  of  these  vocables. 

First  we  shall  pay  attention  to  the  duplication  phenomena.  A 
characteristic  of  many  languages  of  the  primitive  type,  dupUcation  so 
strongly  marks  the  speech  of  Polynesia  that  it  has  been  possible  to 
study  out  its  form  varieties  and  to  assign  to  the  varying  usage  a  value 
almost  syntactical.  For  the  fuller  consideration  of  this  mechanism  of 
word-formation  and  word-employment  I  invite  attention  to  my  mono- 
graph upon  "Duplication  Mechanics  in  Samoan  and  their  Functional 
Values"  (1908)  in  "The  American  Journal  of  Philology,"  vol.  xxix, 
page  33.  In  the  Subanu  this  mechanism  is  far  less  frequent  than  in 
Polynesian  speech  and  its  syntactical  value  less  apparent.  All  the 
instances  which  are  found  in  this  vocabulary  are  here  presented,  together 
with  the  estimate  of  their  functions  in  the  scanty  number  of  cases  where 
that  is  deducible. 

As  expressive  of  the  diminutive  sense,  Subanu  duplication  gives  us  the 
following  batabata,gibasgibas,manocmanoc,sapasapa  and  sibulansibulan. 

To  express  a  plural  or  general  collective,  duplication  here  gives  us 
leenleen.  The  cognate  sense  of  plurahty  of  action  (verb)  which  inheres 
in  reciprocal  action,  movement  back  and  forth,  is  found  in  gocabgocab 
and  poc-sindilsindil. 

The  intensive  sense,  really  a  protraction  of  the  idea  of  plurality, 
is  found  in  the  following:  boangboang,  cotecote,  dayandayan,  gonagona, 
libaliba,  lingalinga,  mog-langlaang. 

Owing  to  the  paucity  of  our  information,  the  remaining  instances  of 
duplication  must  remain  unclassed  as  to  the  inner  nature  of  their  employ- 
ment. These  are  the  following:  conotconot,  cotooto,  dubdub,  gwakgwak, 
ganiingganting,  gibrisibus,  limalima,  linguUngu,  maomao,  ningniug, 
pondopondo,  porongporong,  so-ganagana. 

The  foregoing  instances  are  of  the  simplest  type  of  duplication ;  the 
word  as  a  whole  is  doubled.  In  the  Polynesian  languages,  where  this 
formation  method  reaches  its  highest  development,  the  frequency  of 
such  simple  duplication  is  so  great  as  to  establish  a  superficial  character 
of  the  speech ;  in  Subanu  we  have  been  able  to  discover,  in  so  much  of  its 
vocabulary  as  is  here  contained,  certainly  a  most  considerable  part,  no 
more  than  the  foregoing  28  instances,  a  percentage  so  small  as  not  to  be 
worth  the  arithmetic  which  it  would  require  to  determine  it. 

In  the  Polynesian  languages,  again,  a  very  beautiful  and  flexible 
system  has  developed  in  the  duplication  mechanics  to  form  a  specific 


66  THE   SUBANU. 

type  to  which  I  have  given  the  designation  predupHcation.  This  con- 
sists in  dupHcating  the  first  syllable  of  a  polysyllable;  in  the  scheme 
which  I  have  formulated  for  convenience  in  classifying  duplications,  the 
letters  b,  c,  d,  and  so  on,  standing  for  the  syllables  of  the  word  in  order, 
preduplication  is  expressed  by  the  formula  bbc,  or  bbcd.  Thus  is 
created  a  very  pretty  system  whereby  syntactical  differences  may  be 
expressed  in  languages  far  anterior  to  the  mechanism  of  inflection. 
While  preduplication  is  quite  frequent  in  Polynesian  we  are  able  to 
discover  but  five  instances  in  which  its  occurrence  in  Subanu  is  satis- 
factorily established  and  one  in  which  some  uncertainty  holds.  The 
five  undoubted  instances  of  preduplication  occur  in  words  compounded 
by  the  addition  of  prefixes.  Of  these,  four  duplicate  an  open  initial 
syllable  of  the  stem,  namely  sogmog-sosiilat,  sogmog-dadao,  po-gogovitan, 
a-lalaat. 

In  the  fifth  instance  we  have  the  duplication  of  a  closed  initial  sylla- 
ble, poc-agagom .  The  doubtful  instance  is  the  word  gagun;  deriving  this 
from  the  Malay  gong,  as  seems  probable,  we  may  class  this  as  predupli- 
cative.  The  chief  objection,  for  vowel  variety  may  here  be  neglected,  is 
that  gong  appears  to  be  a  monosyllable  and  our  studies  of  duplication  up 
to  the  present  have  afiforded  us  no  cases  in  which  the  duplication  has 
dealt  with  anything  less  than  the  syllable  as  a  unit,  none  which  seems  to 
split  the  syllable.  On  the  other  hand,  the  length  of  the  vowel  in  gong 
suggests  a  primitive  goong,  a  dissyllable  with  two  short  vowels  in  time 
reduced  to  a  monosyllable  by  crasis,  yet  retaining  sufficient  of  the  past 
life  of  the  word  to  allow  the  resolution  of  the  long  vowel  in  the  employ- 
ment of  duplication.  Likewise,  our  future  studies  upon  composition 
of  words  by  formative  members  applied  interiorly  will  indicate  very 
clearly  that  there  is  here  no  disposition  to  regard  the  syllable  unit  as  a 
thing  so  fixed  as  to  preclude  its  separability. 

Before  we  proceed  to  the  details  of  composition  in  the  Subanu  words, 
we  note  a  case  where  composition  involves  the  loss  of  a  stem  vowel. 
The  instances  are  few  and  curious.  The  loss  of  stem  vowel  is  unmis- 
takable in  pic-nogan  from  inog,  mog-langlaang  from  laang,  quina-anglan 
from  angol  as  we  establish  from  its  Visayan  relative  hangol.  In  lack  of 
definite  information  upon  the  point,  I  include  herewith  guiadman  from 
doma  and  poalat  from  laat;  it  is  quite  possible  that  adman  and  alat 
derive  from  doma  and  laat  through  inversion  of  the  former  syllables. 
While  this  may  seem  to  us  a  brutal  treatment  of  the  syllable,  we  shall 
find  in  the  comparison  of  the  Subanu  with  the  Visayan,  in  the  next  chap- 
ter, so  many  instances  explicable  only  as  inverts  that  we  may  anticipate 
that  etymological  mechanism  in  this  case.  The  word  pogugba  remains ; 
this  composite  is  pog-ugba;  the  stem  seems  (the  sense  supporting)  to  be 
associable  with  gapog.  It  does  no  violence  to  the  genius  of  the  language 
to  excise  the  final  g,  which  is  no  more  than  a  suffix  establishing  the  noun 
character  of  the  attributive  vocable,  and  therefore  is  properly  dismissed 


SUBANU   PHONETICS   AND    COMPOSITION   MEMBERS.  67 

when  the  attributive  passes  into  verb  sense.  Next,  inversion  of  the 
former  syllable  in  the  resultant  gapo  gives  us  agpo;  it  is  very  simple  and 
general  phonetics  to  find  the  sonant  g  attracting  its  neighbor  p  from 
surd  to  sonant  in  its  own  series;  therefore  agpo  becomes  agbo,  and  lack 
of  vowel  fixity  is  so  characteristic  of  this  rude  speech  that  ugba  is  quite 
explicable. 

We  are  next  to  examine  a  phonetic  usage  which  is  not  properly  to 
be  dealt  with  as  a  case  of  consonant  mutation,  for  it  affects  certain  con- 
sonants, the  two  palatal  mutes,  positionally ;  that  is  to  say,  only  when 
they  are  used  as  the  initial  consonant  of  the  vocable.  It  will  be  seen  in 
the  vocabulary  that  many  vocables  which  begin  with  the  syllable  ca  are 
duphcated  by  forms  which  lack  the  C  and  that  to  a  lesser  extent  this 
double  form  is  true  of  vocables  with  ga  initial.  Even  where  the  double 
form  does  not  appear  in  the  Subanu  vocabulary,  a  reference  to  the 
Visayan  affiliates  will  show  that  the  uncertainty  exists.  There  are  three 
seeming  exceptions  to  this  principle  of  uncertainty  as  restricted  to  the 
beginning  of  words,  cotooto,  gibusibtis,  and  gonauna.  It  will  be  seen 
that  while  the  loss  appears  to  have  taken  place  in  a  position  inner  with 
respect  of  the  vocable,  it  is  initial  with  respect  of  the  stem  duplicated. 

To  a  certain  extent  it  has  been  possible  to  associate  these  variant 
forms  with  the  several  sources  of  the  vocabulary  material.  Yet  after 
all  that  leads  nowhere,  for  there  is  no  uniformity;  the  source  which 
affords  us  the  abraded  form  in  one  vocable  may  yield  the  full  form  in 
another  and  precisely  similar  vocable,  and  each  in  turn  applies  or 
neglects  the  initial  palatal  mute  in  the  case  of  vocables  for  which  we 
have  a  Visayan  or  even  Spanish  original.  Thus  from  the  Spanish 
caballo  the  Subanu  borrows  the  transliteration  cabayo  and  parallels  it 
with  an  abraded  form  abayo.  It  will  not  be  difficult  in  scanning  the 
vocabulary  under  these  initials  to  find  a  sufficiency  of  instances  to  show 
that  the  Subanu  abrades  the  mute  initial  in  words  which  clearly  pos- 
sessed it  in  the  source  of  the  loan.  On  the  other  hand  there  are  quite  as 
many  instances  to  show  that  Subanu,  through  some  principle  in  its  own 
phonetics,  assumes  C  or  g  as  initial  to  words  which  in  the  Visayan  are 
devoid  thereof;  for  instance  gama  is  Visayan  amah  an.  In  our  later 
examination  of  the  exterior  relations  of  both  Subanu  and  Visayan  we 
shall  observe  this  word  in  its  proper  class  and  shall  discover  that  the  g 
is  really  a  Subanu  assumption  upon  a  stem  which  in  its  genesis  began 
with  a  consonant  wholly  distinct  in  series  and  in  the  speech-organ  em- 
ployed. We  are  warranted  in  the  statement  that  the  Subanu  assumed 
an  initial  consonant  and  that  this  assumed  consonant  tends  to  disappear. 

I  have  had  a  sense  that  this  matter  of  the  assumed  initial  palatal 
mute  represented  a  senior  and  a  junior  stage  of  the  language ;  that  it 
was  an  ancient  Subanu  character  to  assume  the  mute,  and  that  in  the 
more  recent  stage  it  was  being  dropped  in  avoidance  of  dialectic  rude- 
ness, as  intercourse  became  more  free  with  more  advanced  Visayan 


68  THE   SUBANU. 

neighbors.  Against  this  provisionally  formed  impression  militate  two 
important  facts;  the  former  is  that  we  have  no  data,  other  than  infer- 
ence wholly  from  outside,  upon  which  to  base  a  valuation  of  relative 
age  in  the  vocabulary  which  now  for  the  first  time  comes  to  us  in  a  very 
disheveled  mass,  but  all  essentially  modern;  the  latter  is  that  the  his- 
toric record,  as  presented  by  Colonel  Finley  in  Part  I  of  this  volume, 
makes  it  plain  that  the  Subanu  shrank,  and  with  the  best  of  good 
reason,  from  intercourse  with  their  more  advanced  neighbors.  This 
impression  may  therefore,  and  quite  properly,  be  dismissed. 

I  believe  that  we  have  here  a  far  more  interesting  and  philologi- 
cally  important  principle  at  work ;  that  we  are  not  dealing  with  a  later 
and  refining  process  of  speech,  but  with  a  rude  and  primitive  principle 
effecting  word  formation  at  a  stage  when  words  are  things  to  be  created 
by  evolution  of  speech  power.  This  apparently  anomalous  assumption 
of  initial  affects  the  palatal  mute.  In  terms  of  speech  evolution  we  see 
that  this  is  an  activity  of  the  first  of  the  speech-organs  to  come  under 
control  and  that  so  far  as  relates  to  that  organ  it  is  the  result  of  the 
maximum  speech  effort;  for  the  variety  of  C  and  g  is  here  negligible, 
since  it  amounts  to  a  mere  shading  of  the  manner  of  vibration  at  the 
exit  time  and  place  of  the  sound  formed  by  the  particular  closure.  In 
this  view  I  regard  the  assumed  initial  as  appulse. 

I  have  employed  this  term  in  connection  with  the  explanation  of 
our  BngUsh  onomatopees  formed  in  the  effort  to  create  words  to  denom- 
inate descriptively  the  familiar  cries  of  our  domestic  companions  to 
whom  true  speech  has  not  yet  come  in  facilitation  of  the  small  ideas 
which  they  try  so  hard  to  communicate  to  us.  Appulse  is  the  initial  of 
all  sound,  the  beginning  of  the  characteristic  vibration  from  a  state  of 
rest.  It  does  not  exist  in  sound;  it  is  an  interpretation  through  the  ear 
and  in  the  auditory  centers  of  the  brain  of  the  suddenness  of  existence  of 
a  sound  out  of  stillness.  Here  I  credit  it  to  the  interpretation  of  a  very 
rude  human  speech.  Hitherto  I  have  credited  it  to  the  interpretation 
of  the  cries  of  barnyard  animals.  It  is  yet  more  general,  for  as  it  does 
not  qualify  sound  in  itself,  but  does  qualify  aural  interpretation  of 
sound,  we  may  sense  appulse  even  in  mechanically  produced  vibrations. 
In  littoral  conditions  of  abode  I  am  well  within  the  range  of  a  steam 
siren,  say  at  a  distance  of  four  miles.  During  still  winter  nights,  when 
falling  snow  draws  a  curtain  against  the  harbor  mouth,  I  can  hear  the 
blast  of  that  instrument  whose  monotone  is  more  prophylactic  than 
musically  pleasing.  Four  times  in  each  minute  the  air  is  filled  with  a 
wailing  sound  which  is  essentially  vocalic,  yet  four  times  in  each  minute 
my  sensorium  reads  into  it  an  initial  consonant,  the  maximum  effort  of 
the  labials.  I  hear  Pooo-Pooo.  Nor  am  I  singular  in  this;  it  is  not  a 
matter  of  the  personal  equation  of  the  observer;  it  has  gone  into  our 
speech  in  the  onomatopee  "pufi'."  Thus  the  appulse  is  our  misread- 
ing of  the  change  from  silence  to  sound ;  we  go  a  trifle  too  far  and  read  a 


SUBANU   PHONETICS   AND   COMPOSITION   MEMBERS.  69 

consonant  in  onr  audition  where  no  consonant  exists.  To  vocalize  that 
audition  we  must  employ  a  consonant  and  thus  we  take  a  mere  ghost  of 
speech  and  materialize  it.  If  we,  long  culture  ages  higher  in  develop- 
ment with  wit  and  ability  (sometimes  put  to  use)  of  knowing  what  we 
are  talking  about,  do  this  in  our  common  speech,  think  how  more  potent 
this  must  be  with  the  rude  savages  remote  in  their  mountains.  It  is 
their  nature,  as  it  is  the  nature  of  most  rude  folk  in  the  higher  cultures, 
to  be  strong  in  their  speech,  and  this  is  most  manifest  at  the  beginnings 
and  endings  of  words.  We  shall  examine  in  another  connection  the 
mutation  of  d,  a  firm  and  strong  consonant  when  at  the  end  of  the  word, 
reducible  to  the  weaker  lingual  effort  in  medial  r  when  the  word  receives 
a  formative  sufhx.  This  principle  of  strength  at  either  end  of  the  word 
tends  to  build  up  the  appulse  into  a  true  consonant. 

Such  examination  as  at  this  point  we  may  give  to  the  characteristic 
consonant  mutations  in  Subanu  is  confined  to  those  few  instances  in 
which  we  find  two  forms  in  use.  There  are  but  few  more  than  a  dozen 
cases  in  which  mutation  is  discoverable  within  Subanu  itself,  but  these 
will  prove  valuable  as  establishing  an  introduction  to  the  larger  mass 
of  phonetic  material  which  will  become  available  when  we  discuss  this 
inner  speech  in  its  relation  to  exterior  cognate  languages  and  particularly 
to  its  immediate  neighbor  the  Visayan. 

At  present  we  register  a  note  of  a  distinctive  phenomenon  which 
not  yet  are  we  prepared  to  comprehend :  every  single  instance  of  muta- 
tion which  we  may  establish  upon  purely  Subanu  material  is  found  in 
connection  with  the  tongue,  with  two  exceptions.  These  two  are  wholly 
anomalous;  the  former  is  daromog  as  a  variant  of  domomog,  mutation 
from  labial  nasal  to  lingual  semivowel ;  the  latter  is  palad  as  a  variant  of 
palag,  mutation  from  surd  lingual  mute  to  sonant  palatal  mute.  It 
will  be  observed  that  in  each  of  these  instances  the  mutation  is  extra 
seriem  and  that  there  is  movement  out  of  class,  nasal  to  semivowel  in 
one  case,  surd  to  sonant  in  the  other.  Those  who  have  accompanied 
me  in  my  studies  of  the  Polynesian  phonetic  will  have  no  difficulty  in 
finding  in  the  mutation  of  palad  to  palag  an  instance,  solitary  in  Subanu, 
of  the  kappation  of  t  which  is  so  marked  a  present  character  of  many 
languages  in  the  central  and  eastern  region  of  the  Pacific. 

The  lingual  mutations  which  we  have  been  able  to  segregate  for 
study  are  most  frequently  from  the  mute,  the  maximum  speech  effort  of 
the  tongue,  clear  across  the  whole  range  of  its  activity  to  the  minimum 
effort  in  the  liquid  semivowel.  The  surd  lingual  mute  t  affords  one 
instance:  in  posoloron,  from  the  stem  solot,  we  find  the  mutation  t-r. 
This  is  the  weakening  of  a  consonant  strong  when  final  into  the  liquid 
when  it  ceases  to  be  final  upon  the  addition  of  a  formative  suffix. 

The  same  principle  is  active  in  the  case  of  the  sonant  lingual  mute 
d  as  a  final  with  mutation  to  r  in  the  following  instances :  guicoran  and 
poguingcora,  from  the  stem  cod;  linonsoran,  from  the  stem  lonsod;  pego- 


70  THE   SUBANU. 

taraii,  from  the  stem  gatad;  and  tobora  from  the  stem  tobod.  I  have 
already  directed  attention  upon  the  fact  that  rude  speakers  give  par- 
ticular force  to  the  beginnings  and  endings  of  words;  this  weakening 
mutation  is  in  itself  confirmatory.  In  the  three  following  instances  we 
shall  observe  the  d-r  mutation  applied  to  the  initial  d  when  it  is  buried 
under  a  formative  prefix:  maralag,  from  stem  dalag;  corala,  from  stem 
dala;  marope,  from  stem  dope. 

In  the  sole  instance  of  batasan  from  stem  batad,  we  find  a  mutation 
that  stops  midway :  instead  of  upon  the  semivowel,  the  weakening  mute 
rests  at  the  sibilant.  We  lack  data  for  the  determination  whether  the 
variants  boid  and  buis  represent  the  same  halfway  mutation  or  whether 
this  is  an  example  of  an  S-d  mutation  not  elsewhere  discovered. 

If  this  inversion  of  mutation  movement  remains  in  doubt  in  the 
matter  of  s-d,  we  may  regard  it  as  definitely  settled  in  the  case  of  r-d  in 
two  instances:  the  variants  danao  and  lanao  and  dongog  and  rongog. 
The  proof  is  external  to  Subanu,  external  in  fact  to  all  Indonesian  speech, 
yet  we  are  justified  in  advancing  it  from  its  proper  later  place  in  order 
to  settle  this  matter  of  phonetics.  The  parent  of  rongog  is  certainly 
the  Polynesian  longo  (rongo) ;  thus  it  is  clear  that  this  is  really  a  case  of 
r-d  mutation.  The  other  word,  lanao,  is  not  quite  so  clear;  it  appears 
associable  with  two  Polynesian  words,  lano  sweet  water  and  lanu  a  lake, 
these  two  being  probably  a  divaricated  stem.  If  this  be  indeed  the 
source  of  lanao,  the  r-d  mutation,  already  once  established,  receives 
confirmation.  In  the  Bontoc  Igorot  we  find  tjenum,  danum,  denom,  all 
in  the  sense  of  potable  water.  This  series,  so  fortunately^  preserved, 
gives  us  both  lano  and  lanu  derivatives  in  the  signification  of  sweet 
water,  and  goes  far  toward  establishing  the  original  unity  of  the  divari- 
cated vocables. 

The  uncertainty  which  I  have  manifested  in  the  discussion  of 
lanao  rests  not  only  upon  the  diversity  of  sense  but  rather  more  upon 
the  lack  of  acquaintance  with  the  phenomenon  of  ao  employed  in 
dipthong  value  as  representative  of  an  earlier  source  vowel.  The 
collation  of  the  Bontoc  Igorot  upon  which  I  engaged  after  the  foregoing 
note  had  been  written  has  given  a  satisfactory  suite  of  instances  in 
which  this  dipthong  appears  as  the  mutation  product  of  the  vowel  O. 


Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

j      Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

boligan 
gayo 

faolengan 
kayao 

goloan 
linao 

olaoan 
alinoao 

1      tao 
toon 

takao 
taaowin 

This  does  not  exhaust  the  source  of  this  dipthong.  From  a  we 
have  balin-gawa-kaaowa,  from  e  goyamet-komaot,  from  u  pusu-baosig. 

This  discovery  applies  particularly  to  the  etymology  of  lanao. 
We  see  here  abundant  evidence  that  lano  and  lanao  are  homogenetic;  we 
have  an  item  of  confirmation  of  a  possible  lanu-lanao  association. 


SUBANU   PHONETICS   AND   COMPOSITION    ME^rBERS.  71 

Finally,  we  are  to  note  one  more  phonetic  principle  of  great  interest. 
This  is  the  speech  necessity  of  supporting  or  prefacing  the  mutes  with 
the  nasal  of  their  own  proper  series.  I  have  already  dwelt  at  some 
length  upon  my  belief  that  the  nasal,  as  the  easiest  and  least  forceful 
exercise  of  the  speech  activity  of  any  organ  of  speech,  is  the  earliest 
acquired,  and  that  from  the  weakest  exercise  of  the  speech  activity  the 
man  in  his  acquisition  of  control  of  the  new  power  leaps  next  to  the 
strongest  exercise  of  that  power.  This  case  of  the  prefaced  mutes  fits 
naturally  into  such  an  explanation.  The  particular  organ  (palate, 
tongue,  or  lips)  to  be  used  is  naturally  put  into  its  most  familiar  posi- 
tion as  a  preliminary  to  the  passage  toward  the  more  difficult.  This 
preliminary  position  encourages  a  light  vocalization  which  appears  just 
prior  to  the  enunciation  of  the  more  difficult  sound,  a  principle  which 
is  entirely  accepted  as  causative  of  the  differentiation  of  sonant  and 
surd.  The  prefaced  palatal  mute,  ngg  or  ngk,  undoubtedly  occurs  in 
Subanu  as  in  the  Visayan,  although  our  vocabulary  does  not  make  its 
existence  clear. 

Of  the  prefaced  lingual  mute  nd  and  the  prefaced  labial  mutes  mp 
and  mb  we  note  that  the  occurrence  is  most  marked  when  the  mute 
which  has  been  able  to  hold  its  own  when  in  the  forceful  initial  position 
becomes  weakened  by  the  employment  of  a  prefix.  Thus,  from  da  ay, 
daapa,  and  di  we  derive  by  composition  gondaay,  ondaapa,  and  ondi; 
from  pia,  poti  and  pulo  we  derive  supported  forms  gompia,  gompoti, 
gompulo.  Similarly,  bagol,  baya,  and  bata  provide  the  prefaced  forms 
gombagol,  sogombaya,  and  gombata. 

We  may  see  a  reason  underlying  all  these  instances  if  we  look  back 
to  the  alphabetic  diagram.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  vowel  o — and 
it  will  undoubtedly  have  been  noticed  already  that  each  one  of  the  pre- 
faced mutes  is  introduced  by  this  vowel — is  set  upon  the  diagram  in  a 
position  midway  between  the  region  controlled  by  the  tongue  in  speech 
and  that  regulated  by  the  lips.  When  one  is  sounding  o  the  Hps  and 
the  forward  cavity  of  the  mouth  are  in  position  to  pass  to  a  lingual  or  to 
a  labial  consonant  with  equal  ease.  But  when  speech  is  yet  a  new  art 
the  speaker  must,  with  more  or  less  of  design,  pass  to  the  first  position 
which  shall  determine  lingual  or  labial,  namely,  the  nasal  position.  The 
very  slightest  vocalization  of  this  position  will  exhibit  to  our  compre- 
hension how  it  comes  to  pass  that  each  mute  is  prefaced  by  the  nasal 
proper  to  the  organ  wherewith  it  is  formed. 

In  all  Subanu  there  is  but  one  instance  of  a  prefaced  mute  which 
does  not  represent  the  weakening  of  a  strong  initial,  yet  that  one  involves 
the  same  use  of  o :  this  is  sogmogombal,  from  stem  gobal;  yet  on  better 
acquaintance  with  the  language  this  exception  may  prove  more  appar- 
ent than  real.  The  general  form  of  the  prefix  is  sogmog,  although 
sogmo  occurs;  the  stem  appears  in  our  vocabulary  as  gobal,  yet  the  abra- 
sion of  initial  palatal  mutes  is  so  frequent  that  it  may  very  well  be  that 


72 


THE   SUBANU. 


this  composite  is  sogmog-obal,  and  thus  the  b  may  be  brought  so  close  to 
the  initial  position  as  to  be  governed  by  the  general  rule. 

This  system  of  prefaced  mutes  is  found  somewhat  widely  spread,  in 
whole  or  in  part,  in  the  tangle  of  languages  which  we  denominate  Mela- 
nesian.  In  Fiji  it  has  become  an  invariable  rule;  that  speech  has  no 
sonant  mutes  which  can  stand  alone  of  their  own  power;  the  preface 
of  the  nasal  of  the  series  is  required  and  we  hear  ngg,  nd,  and  mb. 

Great  variety  of  form  is  given  to  the  Subanu  vocables  by  the  free 
employment  of  formative  members.  We  lack  the  data  whereupon  to 
work  out  the  syntactical  value  of  these  accessories  of  speech,  but  we  can 
arrange  our  material  to  prove  the  existence  of  the  following  types  of 
word  composition:  i,  prefix  alone;  2,  suffix  alone;  3,  infix  alone;  4,  pre- 
fix-suffix; 5,  infix-suffix. 

I.  The  following  are  the  prefixes  employed  in  composition  without 
accessory  formative  members ;  in  the  cases  of  those  less  frequently  used 
the  instances  of  occurrence  are  noted;  where  this  reference  is  not  made, 
the  words  are  readily  found  in  the  vocabulary  order  under  the  par- 
ticular prefix. 


a  duplicating  the  initial  syllable,  alalaat. 

ba  hasulan,  baton. 

be  belema,  belintis. 

ca 

cu  cutao. 

di  probably  of  prepositional  value,  dialum, 

dibaban,  dien,  dipag,  diselum,  ditaas.    In 

the  Malay  (/i  is  distinctly  a  preposition. 
do  dosop. 

em  (ma  variant)  embais,  ?  empetek. 
g  (ca,  ga  variant)  gayac. 
go  godaay,  gondaay,  gondi,  gompia,  gompoh, 

gompulo,  gopia,  gotao. 
ig  (probably  a  ga  variant,  as  em  of  ma), 
ma  (variant  forms  me,  mi,  mo,  mu). 
maca  (variant  forms  maa,  maga). 
mail 

mi  milipay. 
mig 

mo  molonio,  moloto. 
moc  (variant  form  mog). 
mu  musop. 

negmeg  (variant  of  nogmog). 
noc  (secondary  forms  are  nocmaca,  noc- 

pig,  nocpog,  nocti). 
nog  (secondary  forms  are  nogma,  nogmig). 


nong  (nog  variant). 

pa  (variant  form  pe). 

paca  (variant  form  paa,  as  maca  of  maa). 

pac  (variant  form  pag). 

pala  (variant  form  palo).     palalabiaii,  pa- 

laminis,  palapa,  palobaya. 
pic  (variant  forms  pig,  ping), 
ping  (pig  variant),     pingoctuban,  pingon- 

dian. 
po  (pa  variant;  alternative  and  secondary 

forms  poc,  poca,  pocca,  poco,  pog, 

pogli,  poglo). 
poglo  (secondary  po  form),     socalpoglogo- 

mutan. 
quina  (kina). 

sa  (variant  forms  are  sac,  sag,  soc,  sog). 
so  (secondary  forms  are  sopoc,  sopoglo). 
soc  (secondary  forms  are  socmec,  socmi, 

socmica,  socmo,  socmoc,  socmog, 

socpo,  socpog,  socsocal). 
socal   (secondary  form  is  socsocal). 
sog  (soc  variant;  secondary  forms  are  sog- 

maca,  sogmag,  sogme,  sogmi,  sog- 

mica,    sogmig,    sogmo,    sogmoc, 

sogmog,  sogpaca,  sogpig,  sogpo, 

sogsocal). 


2.  The  following  are  the  suffixes  which  are  used  with  no  earlier 
formative  element;  more  properly  it  is  a  list  of  the  suffixes  when  used 
alone,  for  we  shall  find  most  of  them  in  use  in  combination  with  prior 
prefix  or  infix. 

-an  antosan,  balidyaan,  batasan,  begyaan, 
boocan,  bootan,  donggoan,  gaitan, 
gaoman,  labanan,  lintisan,  lo- 
bungan,  pandayan,  pintasan,  sala- 
pian,  sinbaan,  sindepan,  tabian, 
togotan. 


-en     pimolaen. 

-han  ulihan. 

-1         bonoal. 

-nen  panganen. 

-non  pomolanon. 

-on     baloson,  gantoson,  motaon,  saboton. 


SUBANU   PHONETICS   AND   COMPOSITION   MEMBERS. 


73 


3.  In  this  list  are  gathered  the  infixes  in  their  employment  without 
other  formative  elements. 


-al- 
-eng- 


-li- 


dalomdom,  logalin. 

bengawan. 

binaal,     binutong,     linagami,     lines, 

quinaan,  sinonan,  tinalicala,  tin- 

ingog,  tinongol. 
golitao. 


-n-      laronon. 

-om-  domangop,  gomolang,  soinaloy,  soma- 

ma,  somacay,  somocol. 
-on-    tinongol. 
-uk-    gimnkud. 
-ul-     bulud. 


4.  In  this  Hst  are  entered  the  instances  in  which  prefix  and  suffix 
appear  simultaneously. 


ci-,  -n  cisabaon. 

ga-,  -an  gabuludan. 

ga-,  -nen  gabilunen,  galonaoncn,  gapel- 
nen,  gapulonen,  gasalag- 
nen,  gataluknen. 

ge-,  -an         gedungusan. 

ge-,  -nen       gemisnen,  getomnen. 

go-,  -nen       gosotnnen. 

gi-,  -nan        gipianan. 

gui-,  -an        guibogan,  guicoran. 

5.  Here  we  list  the  instances 
taneously  appUed  to  stems. 

-al-,  -an    dalinduman. 

-en-,  -an  beninalan,  benoiran,  senombagun. 


ka-,  -nen       kagobolnen. 
ma-,  -on        malalison. 
ma-,  -ot         rnalipotol. 
pe-,  -an  pegotaran,  pegoyonan. 

pic-,  -an        picnogatt,  pictoonan. 
pic-,  -nan      picpongonnan. 
pig-,  -an        pigbuatan,  pigdaoan. 
poc-,  -on       poctoboson. 
sogme-,  -an  sogmebagolan. 
sogmi-,  -an  sogmigagoyan. 

in  which  infix  and  sufiix  are  simul- 


-im-,  -an  timondoan. 

-in-,  -an  linonsoran,  linitnbogan,  binalan. 


We  need  not  now  give  particular  attention  to  prefixes  and  suffixes 
beyond  the  mere  listing  of  their  occurrence.  They  appear  to  be  gov- 
erned by  rules  sufficiently  familiar  in  the  science  of  speech.  The  infixes, 
however,  are  worth  all  the  study  Vv^hich  we  can  put  upon  them  in  this 
place,  for  the  use  of  infixes  is  not  only  a  distinctive  character  of  Indo- 
nesian languages,  but  is  a  diagnostic  and  critical  character. 

In  the  material  which  we  have  here  collated  it  is  clear,  upon  the 
first  inspection,  that  the  infix  is  almost  always  appHed  to  the  initial 
syllable  of  the  word-stem.*  But  four  exceptions  are  noted  and  it  will 
be  proper  to  submit  these  exceptional  uses  to  examination  before 
advancing  upon  the  general  theme.  The  instance  of  log-a/-in  offers 
no  explanation. 

We  find  variant  forms  of  one  stem,  guimukud  and  guimud;  super- 
ficially this  appears  an  infixature,  guim-w^-ud.     The  two  forms  are 

*From  Dr.  Seidenadel's  Language  of  the  Bontoc  Igorot  I  extxact  the  following  memo- 
randa upon  the  structural  use  of  infixature,  the  references  being  to  the  sections  of  his  essay 
on  the  grammar: 

68.  The  part  of  the  body  which  is  wounded,  hit,  struck,  etc.,  is  expressed  by  the  infix 
-in-  placed  into  the  reduplication  of  substantives  with  initial  consonants;  to  those  with  an 
initial  vowel  in-  is  prefixed  and  the  initial  vowel  is  doubled. 

119.  Progressive  quality,  or  transition  of  a  quality  into  a  higher  degree,  is  expressed 
by  adding  to  these  verbalized  forms  the  particle  um  as  prefix  before  an  initial  vowel;  but 
as  infix  if  the  adjective  begins  with  a  consonant.  As  infix  -um-  is  placed  between  the  initial 
consonant  and  the  first  vowel. 

170.  Um-  is  used  exclusively  with  personal  verbs.  Um-  is  prefixed  to  initial  vowels; 
if  there  is  an  initial  consonant  -um-  enters  the  root  and  takes  its  place  between  the  initial 
consonant  and  the  vowel  of  the  first  syllable. 

23 1 .  But  -in-  is  infixed,  or  placed  between  the  initial  consonant  and  the  following  vowel 
pf  verbs  beginning  with  a  consonant. 


74 


THE   SUBANU. 


merely  variants,  we  have  no  other  evidence  that  -uk-  is  used  as  an  infix ; 
it  produces  no  change  of  meaning,  and  all  our  well-established  infixes 
function  in  value,  though  not  in  position,  as  inflectional.  In  view  of  the 
fact  that  elsewhere  we  note  the  tendency  of  palatal  mutes  to  vanish,  it 
is  quite  possible  that  guimukud  is  the  true  form  of  the  vocable,  that  it 
becomes  guimnud  by  loss  of  the  palatal,  then  by  crasis  guimnd. 

In  laro-;?-on,  as  an  infixature  from  laroou,  the  infix  -n-  seems 
associable  with  the  well-established  infixes  -en-,  -in-,  -on-;  further- 
more, its  presence  changes  an  adjective  into  a  noun,  a  proper  function 
of  this  composition  member. 

In  tin-o«-gol,  as  an  infixature  from  tingol,  we  encounter  yet 
another  anomaly.  In  all  the  other  instances  the  infix  is  applied  between 
consonant  and  vowel;  here  it  seems  to  be  applied  between  two  con- 
sonants. It  is  more  remarkable  than  it  seems.  In  Subanu  ng  is  not 
a  compound  consonant,  it  is  as  individual  a  consonant  as  n  or  m  of  the 
class  to  which  it  belongs  or  as  g  and  k  of  the  series  in  which  it  occurs. 
Accordingly  we  are  at  a  loss  to  comprehend  this  severing  of  a  consonant 
by  the  insertion  of  a  formative  element. 

In  the  regular  infixatures  the  introduced  element  falls  into  two 
types  according  as  the  consonant  is  Hquid  or  nasal.  We  note,  but  with- 
out full  comprehension  of  the  significance  of  the  fact,  that  these  are  the 
weakest  of  consonant  possibiHties.  The  liquid  we  find  as  -al-  and  -li-. 
The  nasal  infix  appears  most  frequently  as  -in-  and  -en-.  The  soli- 
tary instance  of  -eng-  in  the  infixature  h-eng-SLWSin  from  bawang  sug- 
gests a  leaping  interchange  of  n  and  ng  which  is  familiar  in  the  general 
study  of  phonetics.  A  second  place  is  occupied  by  the  labial  nasal  in 
-im-  and  -om-. 

At  this  point  it  will  be  proper  to  introduce  the  loan  material  which 
the  Subanu  has  assumed  from  the  Spanish.  From  this  material,  scanty 
though  it  be,  we  shall  be  able  to  derive  a  few  principles  upon  which  the 
mountaineers  deal  with  speech  acquisitions  which  for  various  reasons 
they  may  desire  to  incorporate  in  their  own  language.  The  considera- 
tions thus  based  upon  a  language  with  which  we  are  famiHar  will  enable 
us  to  make  a  better  start  in  the  next  chapter,  where  we  shall  consider 
the  relation  of  Subanu  with  its  congener  Visayan.  The  Spanish  loans 
are  set  down  in  the  following  table: 


Subanu. 

Spanish. 

Subanu. 

Spanish. 

Subanu. 

Spanish. 

aao 

cacao 

camote 

camote 

paldon 

padron 

abayo 

caballo 

capote 

capote 

pares 

par 

antocos 

anteojos 

compinsal 

confesar 

sarol 

azada 

apote 

capote 

daro 

arar 

sengguil 

senor 

bandela 

bandera 

gasol 

azul 

sondalo 

soldado 

bino 

vino 

gobcdnarol 

gobernador 

tacho 

tacho 

bobo 

bobo 

laguas 

enaguas 

i     viste 

vestc 

cabayo 

caballo 

locao 

lugar 

SUBANU  PHONETICS  AND   COMPOSITION  MEMBERS.  75 

The  abrasion  of  an  initial  mute  {aao,  abayo,  apote)  has  akeady  been 
discussed  at  length ;  it  calls  for  less  attention  here  since  for  the  second 
and  third  of  these  instances  we  have  unabraded  forms  as  well.  The 
assumption  of  an  initial  palatal  mute  is  exhibited  in  gasol. 

The  Spanish  r  becomes  1  except  in  daro,  pares. 

That  hino  shows  a  change  of  Spanish  V  to  b  while  viste  retains  it 
unaltered,  although  this  labial  spirant  is  not  included  in  the  proper 
alphabet,  is  easily  explicable.  The  Tagalog,  with  whom  the  Spaniards 
came  first  into  contact,  made  the  mutation  to  hino;  thence,  as  the 
knowledge  of  vinous  and  distilled  Uquors  spread  in  advance  of  the  Span- 
ish culture  and  through  purely  Philippine  exchanges,  the  different  lan- 
guages encountered  in  this  very  intoxicating  course  adopted  the  Tagalog 
word  long  before  the  original  Spanish  form  came  within  their  knowledge. 

The  interior  change  whereby  confesar  becomes  compinsal  is  of  pecu- 
Har  interest  and  will  not  be  difficult  of  comprehension  if  we  approach 
it  simply.  In  the  f  the  Subanu  finds  a  consonant  modulant  to  which 
his  Ups  are  not  trained,  and  it  must  equally  be  understood  that  his  ear  is 
undoubtedly  as  yet  dull  to  its  nicety  of  position  and  vibration.  He  does 
the  best  he  can;  he  hits  the  ultimate  labial  possibility  p,  and  because  he 
has  been  making  a  particular  effort  to  employ  an  unfamiHar  labial  he  is 
easily  led  to  attract  the  preceding  nasal  from  n  of  the  lingual  series  to 
m  of  the  labial  series. 

In  gohernador  and  padron  he  hears  the  r  grasseye,  a  variant  of  the 
liquid  which  is  beyond  his  practice.  That  in  gohednarol  and  paldon  he 
has  reproduced  this  byd,  the  ultimate  possibiHtyof  lingual  effort,  is  yet 
one  more  instance  that  when  for  any  reason  he  has  to  pass  beyond  the 
minimum  consonant  activity  there  is  nothing  to  check  his  effort  before 
reaching  the  maximum  activity.  Yet  in  each  of  these  words  a  d  which  is 
easy  for  him  to  produce  goes  back  to  the  Hquid,  r  and  1  respectively. 
This  is  a  secondary  result  of  the  particular  effort  already  made  which 
has  produced  a  mutation  d  and  therefore  renders  necessary  some  variant 
in  the  simple  d. 

In  sondalo,  from  soldado,  the  mutation  from  the  lingual  semivowel 
to  the  nasal  of  its  own  series  is  a  passage  through  the  least  possible  dis- 
tance. That  it  has  been  made  in  this  case  I  incline  to  attribute  to  the 
Subanu  tendency  when  d  in  an  interior  position  is  preceded  by  O  to 
employ  the  preface  of  the  nasal  of  its  own  series,  as  we  have  seen  in 
gondaay  and  gondi. 

These  words  sondalo  and  sarol  and  gohednarol  show  an  r  or  1  deriva- 
tive from  d,  a  tendency  which  we  have  already  seen  operative  in  the 
case  of  a  truly  Subanu  d  when  in  an  inner  position. 


CHAPTER  III. 
SUBANU-VISAYAN  FILIATION. 

Geographically,  the  Subanu  occupy  a  position  within  the  region 
of  their  Visayan  neighbors,  unneighborly  foes  as  appears  distinctly  in 
Colonel  Finley's  sketch  of  their  Ufe.  In  comparison  of  culture  the 
Subanu  are  on  a  plane  far  lower  than  the  Visayans ;  yet  so  large  an  ele- 
ment of  Subanu  speech  is  found  in  the  Visayan  that  we  must  recognize 
that  some  manner  of  relationship  exists.  Of  what  manner  this  relation- 
ship is,  whether  the  Subanu  is  an  archetypal  speech  from  which  the 
Visayan  has  evolved  through  more  active  use  in  better  culture  condi- 
tions, whether  the  common  element  in  Subanu  has  been  absorbed  by 
the  mountain  folk  from  their  keener  neighbors,  or  whether  each  draws 
its  descent  from  a  common  source — these  are  problems  which  naturally 
suggest  themselves  and  to  which  we  shall  direct  attention  in  this  chapter. 

The  proportion  which  this  common  stock  of  Subanu- Visayan  bears 
to  the  vocabulary  of  the  Subanu  here  assembled  is  so  large  that  the 
theory  of  absorption  is  scarcely  tenable.  Such  absorption  of  more 
cultured  speech  by  a  lower  race  becomes  possible  only  when  there  is 
long-continued  association  in  conditions  where  it  is  either  convement  or 
necessary  for  the  lower  race  to  adopt  the  readiest  means  of  communi- 
cation with  the  superior. 

In  the  general  field  of  language  growth  through  environment  we 
may  readily  pick  examples  of  the  limiting  cases  of  this  absorption  pos- 
sibility. Where  the  association  of  higher  and  lower  is  most  largely  a 
matter  of  the  adoption,  voluntarily  on  either  side,  of  a  modus  vivendi, 
and  where  the  questions  of  civic  domination  are  negligible,  we  find  the 
jargon  type  of  speech,  the  Pidgin,  the  lingua  franca.  How  scanty  such 
a  trade  speech  need  be  and  yet  serve  all  the  ends  of  intercommunication, 
may  be  estimated  from  the  jargon  of  the  western  Pacific,  culturally  more 
fairly  comparable  with  Mindanao  conditions  than  would  be  the  Pidgin- 
EngUsh  of  the  China  coast.  I  have  presented  the  results  of  such  study 
in  a  monograph  on  the  "Beach-la-Mar."  Referred  to  the  base  of  any 
one  of  the  rude  island  tongues  which  have  contributed  to  this  speech 
magma,  the  Beach-la-Mar  represents  about  one  per  cent  of  the  speech 
equipment  of  the  lower  folk;  relative  to  the  superior  English,  it  is 
infinitesimal. 

To  this  type  we  assign  the  Pidgin  of  China,  for  it  has  been  volun- 
tarily assumed  under  the  attraction  of  trade  chances  and  is  not  at  all 
to  be  regarded  as  forced  upon  its  users  by  a  conquering  people.  Here, 
too,  we  place  the  Chinook  of  the  northwest  coast  of  America.     It  may 

77 


78  THE   SUBANU. 

appear  inconsistent  that  we  place  the  white-red  Chinook  jargon  in  a 
different  class  from  the  white-black  Krooboy,  but  personal  experience 
has  shown  me  conclusively  that  the  attitude  of  the  white  man  to  the 
red  and  of  the  red  man  to  the  white  in  the  Puget  Sound  artificial  speech 
is  that  of  partnership  and  voluntary  contribution  to  the  capital  stock. 
On  the  other  hand  the  relation  of  white  and  black  on  the  African 
beaches  is  essentially  that  of  master  and  servant,  even  if  the  law  pre- 
vents the  name  of  slave. 

At  the  other  limit  of  such  possibility  we  have  the  frequent  cases 
in  which  an  inferior  race  stands  to  the  dominant  superior  in  the  ser- 
vile relation.  The  history  of  African  slavery  gives  us  a  considerable 
range  of  the  speech  possibiHties  which  result.  In  the  West  Indies  we 
encounter  certain  jargons  which  yet  await  philological  examination; 
such  are  the  Papimiento  of  Curasao  and  the  Negro  EngHsh  of  the 
Guianas;  to  these  we  add  the  Krooboy  of  the  African  west  coast  as 
genetically  associable.  We  are  sufficiently  acquainted  with  these  and 
others  of  the  type  to  recognize  that  they  form  but  a  small  part  of  the 
vernacular,  that  they  are  regarded  by  their  users  as  a  foreign  language ; 
in  fact  the  cannibals  of  the  western  Pacific  refer  to  the  Beach-la-Mar 
as  "speak  English."  On  the  other  hand,  in  our  own  land  the  Africans 
have  undergone  a  loss  of  their  widely  varying  vernaculars;  their  con- 
tribution to  even  our  lowest  speech  is  practically  negUgible. 

Yet  the  element  common  to  Visayan  and  Subanu  is  all  of  half  of 
the  latter,  a  fact  in  itself  which  argues  that  it  is  not  to  be  associated 
with  trade  jargon  or  servile  speech.  On  other  than  Unguistic  grounds 
Colonel  Finley 's  narrative  contraindicates  any  such  possibility  of  absorp- 
tion. He  has  made  it  satisfactorily  clear  that  there  was  no  freedom  of 
intercourse  in  trade  of  Visayans  with  Subanu;  that  the  shy  Subanu 
withdrew  to  the  mountains  and  thereby  avoided  the  chance  of  slavery; 
that  the  slight  mixed  element,  despite  the  catholicity  of  the  Moham- 
medan faith  in  absorbing  inferior  races,  forms  but  a  despised  element 
under  equal  contempt  of  the  Moro  and  of  the  hill  tribe. 

We  might  multiply  considerations  to  show  that  Subanu  absorption 
of  Visayan  material  is  out  of  the  question,  but  the  foregoing  will  surely 
suffice. 

What,  then,  is  the  source  of  this  very  extensive  speech  community 
amounting  to  463  items? 

Before  we  can  pass  intelligently  upon  the  problem  here  involved,  we 
shall  proceed  in  the  more  orderly  course  by  collating  the  common  mate- 
rial in  the  several  classes  into  which  it  proves  associable  and  thus  study 
the  types  of  variety  in  this  community. 

In  the  first  group,  very  nearly  half  the  material  (226  items),  we 
shall  collect  the  common  element  where  the  two  languages  differ  in  this 
record  only  by  means  of  formative  elements  (which  for  convenience  we 
indicate  by  type  differentiation)  or  in  regard  of  the  vowels.     It  has 


SUBANU-VISAYAN   FILIATION. 


79 


already  been  noted  that  in  Subanu  there  is  such  uncertainty  in  vowel 
employment  as  to  remove  that  element  of  speech  wholly  from  a  critical 
position.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Visayan.  Therefore  we  are  under 
double  necessity  to  disregard  vowel  mutations  in  this  record,  for  we 
have  no  certain  base  upon  which  to  erect  a  critical  structure. 

Words  common  to  Subanu  and  Visayan. 


Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

aba 

abaa 

dalan 

dalan 

mata 

mata 

agom 

agom 

dali 

dali 

matay 

matay 

a/alaat 

alaot 

daoa 

daoa 

mis 

/amis 

ambit 

ambit 

dapig 

dapig 

fwonoog 

naog 

antosan 

antos 

daro 

daro 

moo 

moo 

ang 

ang 

dato 

dato 

mota 

niota 

asoaag 

asoang 

dila 

dUa 

motood 

niatood 

atop 

atop 

dilo 

dili 

name 

namo 

ba 

ba 

dogo 

dog6 

napo 

napo 

baal 

baol 

domangop 

dangop 

nepes 

nipis 

baba 

baba 

donggoan 

donggo 

ngalan 

ngalan 

baboy 

baboy 

dongog 

dongog 

obos 

obos 

baga 

baga 

doso 

doso 

ogboc 

ogboc 

balagon 

balagon 

gasa 

gasa 

clang 

olang 

balani 

balani 

gatas 

gatas 

osa 

osa 

balay 

balay 

gaui 

gaol 

paa 

paa 

balbal 

balbal 

gobii 

gabii 

palongan 

palongan 

balibad 

balibad 

gobot 

gobot 

palos 

palos 

baling 

baling 

gua 

goa 

panday 

panday 

balod 

balod 

gubat 

gobat 

panilong 

panilong 

balon 

balon 

gulang 

golang 

pasaylo 

pasaylo 

bangot 

bangot 

init 

init 

pat 

opat 

basa 

basa 

inom 

inom 

patay 

patay 

basulan 

basol 

labian 

labi 

patod 

patod 

bata 

bata 

labon 

labon 

pili 

pili 

batasan 

batasan 

laen 

lain 

pinilian 

pinilian 

batirol 

batirol 

lalis 

lalis 

pintas 

pintas 

bato 

bat6 

lanao 

lanao 

pitu 

pito 

batog 

batog 

lansang 

lansang 

pofoloya 

pagcaloya 

baton 

baton 

langan 

langan 

polos 

polos 

bilin 

bilin 

langit 

lingit 

pono 

pono 

biling 

biling 

latin 

1  ma  tin 

ponoan 

ponoan 

binocot 

binnocot 

lauas 

laoas 

ponooc 

naog 

bisan 

bisan 

layo 

layo 

pongol 

pongol 

boangboang 

boangboang 

Iceg 

liog 

posinao 

pasinao 

boaya 

boaya 

leenleen 

lainlain 

poti 

poti 

bolit 

bolit 

libac 

libac 

potol 

potol 

bonal 

bonal 

libang 

libang 

ptiasa 

poasa 

bono 

bono 

libot 

libot 

pulo 

pola 

bonoa 

banoa 

ligo 

ligo 

sa 

osa 

boot 

boot 

lima 

lima 

sabay 

sabay 

botang 

botang 

limbong 

limbong 

sabot 

sabot 

butasan 

botasan 

linao 

linao 

sacay 

sacay 

bulac 

bolac 

linganay 

linganay 

saguing 

saguing 

bulan 

bolAn 

lingin 

lingin 

sal  a 

sala 

bunga 

bonga 

lioat 

lioat 

salapi 

salapi 

buot 

boot 

lipay 

lipay 

sama 

sama 

butang 

botang 

lisod 

lisod 

sambag 

sambag 

caban 

caban 

lobung 

lobong 

samoc 

samoc 

cahoy 

cahoy 

lolan 

lolan 

sapauan 

sapao 

calauat 

calaoat 

lolid 

lolid 

sayop 

sayop 

cana 

canon 

loon 

loon 

siam 

si&m 

80 


THE   SUBANU. 

Words  common  to  Subanu  and  Visayan — Continued. 


Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

conot 

conot 

lopa 

lopa 

siclat 

siclit 

cota 

cota 

lotao 

lotao 

silong 

silong 

cotecote 

coticoti 

loto 

loto 

sipoon 

sipon 

daag 

daog 

loya 

loya 

sobo 

sobo 

dacsoc 

dtnasoc 

maligon 

maligon 

sogo 

sogo 

dagat 

dagat 

managat 

mananagat 

sogpaon 

sagpa 

dala 

dala 

mananap 

mananap 

somocol 

socol 

dalaga 

dalaga 

manoc 

manoc 

sompoyon 

sompay 

sontoc 

sontoc 

tapus 

tapos 

tolod 

tolod 

sopang 

sopang 

teguib 

tigib 

tolog 

tolog 

suba 

soba 

tian 

tian 

tonaoan 

tonao 

sulat 

solat 

tibooc 

tibooc 

too 

too 

sulu 

solo 

ticas 

ticas 

toon 

toon 

taab 

taob 

tigom 

tigom 

tuba 

toba 

taas 

taas 

tina 

tina 

tubig 

tobig 

tabian 

tabi 

tjwalicala 

talicala 

tuman 

toman 

tagana 

tagana 

tingala 

tingala 

tumbaga 

tombaga 

tago 

tago 

tingog 

tingog 

tuyo 

toyo 

talao 

talao 

tobang 

tabang 

ulimo 

oli 

tampalasan 

tampalasan 

tobe 

tabi 

walu 

oalo 

tampoling 

tampaling 

tobod 

tobod 

ya 

ya 

tao 

taoo 

togot 

togot 

yaua 

yaoa 

tapis 

tapis 

tolo 

tolo 

tapolan 

tapolan 

tolo 

tolo 

We  shall  next  follow  out  the  examination  of  such  fihation  as  may- 
subsist  between  the  Subanu  and  the  Visayan,  progressing  from  the 
vowel  area  by  the  naturally  developing  series  of  consonant  classes.  In 
this  examination  I  have  set  the  Subanu  form  in  the  former  position 
and  have  compared  the  Visayan  therewith;  it  should  be  made  clear 
that  until  the  data  have  been  assembled  we  leave  in  suspense  the  ques- 
tion as  to  which  language  occupies  the  prior  position,  for  the  settle- 
ment of  this  and  alUed  questions  must  rest  upon  our  reading  of  the 
collated  data. 

In  the  first  order  we  undertake  the  comparison  of  the  Hquids  and 
begin  with  r.  In  the  three  words,  arunaan,  gare,  and  its  variant  lare,  T 
is  common  to  the  two  languages ;  it  will  be  observed  that  it  lies  in  an 
inner  position. 

In  type  r-d  the  Subanu  r  represents  a  Visayan  d  in  the  nine 
instances  it  is  medial  in  its  occurrence.  The  irregular  filiation  of  sora- 
isda  will  find  its  explanation  later  under  the  theme  of  inversion. 


Subanu.       Visayan. 


Type  r-d. 
gare 

guicoran 
laraban 

Type  r-I 
Type  r-w 


hadi 

lingcodan 

ladaoan 


Subanu.         Visayan. 


f>oraigon  padayigon 

porong  podong 

sayoro»  sayod 

marongot  maligotgoton 

morala  oala 


Subanu.     Visayan. 


sora  isda 

taron  tadong 

torong  tadong 

Pporang  bolad. 


SUBANU-VISAYAN  FIIvIATlON. 


81 


In  the  collation  of  the  other  liquid,  1,  we  shall  find  these  types  and 
certain  others  which  do  not  appear  in  the  paucity  of  the  r  material. 

Type  l-l,  that  is  the  community  of  the  letter: 


balidya 

donlag 

guilat 

logalin 

lotang 

sapulu 

binal 

?dula 

guilid 

logoc 

lua 

solog 

boclag 

gaclop 

laang 

logong 

lugbas 

solot 

bolaan 

galad 

lagi 

logud 

magalin 

sool 

bolao 

goles 

lagoy 

lolat 

maloot 

talinga 

bolig 

golitao 

lee 

lonao 

moIi6 

tolisan 

cogool 

golo 

lines 

lonsod 

morala 

ixlatay 

dala 

gonlo 

linga 

lood 

palon 

ulihan 

debaloy 

guil 

logan 

loop 

puli 

When  we  compare  type  1-d  with  the  parallel  type  r-d  we  see  that, 
whereas  that  appears  only  medial,  this  is  found  initial,  medial,  and  final. 
We  anticipate  the  explanation  of  luma-odma  as  an  invert. 


Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Type  1-d. 

Pguilos 

iding 

loon 

daghan 

ponicol 

panicad 

laat 

daot 

luma 

odma 

sicol 

sicad 

h'nagami 

dagami 

Type  1-t. 

lopong 

topong 

Type  d-I. 

?good 

dool 

■ 

Type  t-1. 

lompoc 

tapoc 

Type  I-g(c). 

lamo 

camo 

sindil 

indig 

Type  g-I. 

guingcod 

lingcod 

Type  n-l. 

mguan 

ligoan 

Type  1  vanished. 

bUa 

abian 

daan 

dalan 

Type  1-h. 

lare 

hari 

Type  I-s. 

Uga 

siga 

Type  nd-dl. 

ondao 

adlao 

ondoc 

hadloc 

tondo 

todlo 

Type  pl-mp. 

sopla 

sompa 

Atypical 

monlogos 

mamomogos 

litobong 

hagbong 

libongan 

iftobongan 

llayan 

caoayan 

Progressing  to  the  nasal  class  we  collate  first  the  palatal  ng. 
the  following  vocables  it  is  common  to  the  two  languages : 


In 


anding 

gabang 

guingcod 

lopong 

panga 

sopingi 

bangitao 

gangay 

libongan 

mopong 

pongong 

tobang 

bencong 

gatbang 

linga 

ngisi 

porong 

torong 

bogguiong 

gongog 

litobong 

osisang 

sansang 

tungdong 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Type  ng-n. 

logong 

logon 

lotang 

lothan 

pongo» 

«pon 

posong 

togtpos6on 

Type  n-ng. 

atandanan 

catongdanan 

palon 

palong 

sinbaan 

singbahan 

bencong 

bingcong 

sansang 

sangsang 

taron 

tadong 

lonsod 

longsod 

Type  ng-t. 

bingcon 

botcon 

laang 

lacat 

Type  ng-d. 

porang 

bolad 

Type  ng-g. 

marongot 

maligotogoton 

pongong 

pogong 

Type  ng  vanished. 

atodanan 
buta 

catongdanan 
botang 

guicoran 

lingcodan 

Atypical: 

guilos 

iring 

talinga 

dalonggan 

tonggab 

tongab 

impit 

hingpit 

tondong 

tongod 

82 


THE   SUBANU. 


The  lingual  nasal  n  affords  us  a  far  briefer  record  of  variability  as 
between  the  two  languages,  for  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  in  this  posi- 
tion the  n-ng  variety  since  it  has  already  been  listed.  The  list  of 
vocables  in  which  this  nasal  is  common  is  here  given: 


anding 

donaan 

gonom 

guinom 

maranaya 

ponopoton 

arunaan 

donot 

gonos 

guinonosola 

masm 

poporenion 

atandanan 

doon 

gonto 

inog 

meaon 

poraigon 

atodanan 

gaan 

goyon 

laraban 

mogonao 

puonan 

bingcon 

gantoson 

guicoran 

libongan 

nano 

sindil 

bolaan 

gasintos 

guien 

Uayan 

niguan 

tioan 

bondyag 

gina 

guilan 

logalin 

panas 

tocsocan 

bone 

gonagona 

guinaoa 

loon 

peen 

tolisan 

daan 

gonas 

guindog 

magalin 

ponicol 

ulihan 

deni 

gonlo 

guinocsip 

There  are  really  so  few  instances  of  variation  that  they  may  properly 
be  grouped  in  a  single  table ;  only  the  first  and  second  show  any  relation 
one  to  another. 


Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

donot 
lonao 

nonot 
lodhao 

nano 
donlag 

cano 
damlag 

niguan 
monlogos 

ligoan 
mamomogos 

class. 


The  labial  nasal  m  is  appreciably  less  in  use  than  the  others  of  this 


Its  community  in  the  two  languages  is  as  follows : 

gamo         gomot        lamo  marongot 


amo 

dagom  gampo  gonom       linagami 

dalinduman  gaom  guinom      luma 

gama  gomog  itom 


meaon 
monlogos 


ocom 

pogliquimo 

timod 


In  the  following  series  the  presence  of  m  in  Subanu  and  absence  in 
Visayan  is  not  to  be  treated  as  phonetic;  it  is  rather  the  presence  of  the 
ma  prefix  of  condition: 


Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

magalin 

maimo 

maloot 

balhin 

himo 

lolot 

maranaya 

matugas 

mogonao 

hanayhay 

tiga 

bognao 

molio 

momoc 

morala 

balico 
homoc 
oala 

In  two  instances  Subanu  maintains  an  initial  m  lacking  to  the  Vis- 
ayan ;  in  the  latter  case  we  shall  have  occasion  to  observe  that  this  is  a 
stem  letter: 


Subanu.        Visayan.  Subanu.        Visayan. 


In  the  following  group  of  instances  the  presence  of  the  m  in  one  or 
other  of  the  languages  suggests  its  employment  for  some  not  well-com- 


3rehended  reason  as  a  pre! 

ace  to  th( 

I  mute  01  it 

s  proper 

series : 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

impit 
lompoc 

Atypical. 

hingpit 
tapoc 

sombag 
sopla 

donlag 
mita 

tobag 
sompa 

damlag 
quita 

tolisan 

mopong 
tamisac 

tampalasan 

topong 
pisac 

The  aspiration  is  very  scantily  employed  by  the  Subanu.     In  the 
vocabulary  will  be  found  but  three  instances  in  which  it  appears  as  an 


SUB ANU- VISA YAN   FILIATION. 


83 


initial,  hilamon,  huopongon,  hatud  which  is  given  as  a  variant  of  atud. 
There  are  no  instances  of  community  of  use. 


Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Type  an-han. 

arunaan 

arunahan 

gina 

inah4n 

sinbaan 

singbahan 

gama 

amahan 

meaon 

mayahon 

ulihan 

oalihan 

gapo 

apohan 

Type  h  initial. 

aoid 

haoid 

inog 

hinog 

ondoc 

badloc 

atud 

hatod 

hwes 

hilis 

poquicot 

hocot 

gutnaoa. 

guinhaoa. 

waimo 

himo 

ulatay 

holat 

impit 

hingpit 

ocom 

hocom 

Type  g-h  initial. 

gaclop 

haclop 

gonas 

bonis 

guinonsola 

hinolsol 

gangay 

hangay 

gongog 

hongog 

pogliquimo 

paghimo 

gare 

hari 

goot 

hacot 

1   quipos 

hipos 

gonagona 

honahona 

gosay 

hosay 

1 

Type  h  medial. 

1 

baa 

baha 

gaitaw 

gahit 

!  puonan 

poh6nan 

biag 

bihag 

gaom 

gahom 

saa 

saha 

boi 

bohi 

lood 

lohod 

i  sool 

sahol 

booc 

bohoc 

lua 

luha 

taap 

tahap 

doon 

dahon 

peen 

baihon 

1  taod 

tahod 

dua 

doha 

t 
1 

We  next  segregate  a  puzzHng  group  in  which  the  Visayan  employs 
aspiration  where  it  is  not  present  in  Subanu  and  apparently  combines 
it  with  other  consonants.  Where  we  have  the  forms  gh,  dh,  th  we 
might  be  tempted  to  class  them  as  spirants  if  it  were  not  for  the  fact  that 
we  have  similar  combinations  with  liquids  and  nasals  where  that 
explanation  would  be  impossible.  It  seems  more  reasonable  to  account 
for  this  aspiration  as  initial  to  the  syllable  following  the  consonant. 


Subanu. 


Visayan. 


magalin 

bangitao 

bone 

Atypical: 
baga 
gayo 
litobong 


balhin 

balanghitao 

binhi 

pagcahobag 

cahoy 

hagbong 


Subanu. 


Visayan. 


deni  dinhi 

poporenion  paanhion 

loon  daghan 

log  lihoc 

lolat  holat 

maranaya  hanayhay 


Subanu. 


Visayan. 


lonao 

lotang 

potao 


lodhao 
lothan 
pothao 


momoc  homoc 

panas  hilanat 

tocsocan        tohogan 


The  sibilant  S  in  the  two  languages  is  remarkably  free  from  modifi- 
cation.    The  vocables  which  show  community  of  use  are  the  following : 


Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

casit 

saquit 

1  lines 

hilis               1 

sicol 

sicad 

gantoson 

antos 

lonsod 

longsod 

sinbaan 

singbahan 

gasintos 

asintos 

lugbas 

lapos 

soay 

asaoa 

gasoy 

asoy 

masin 

asin                : 

socog 

cosog 

gocsip 

sipsip 

monlogos 

mamomogos 

soggo 

sodoc 

goguis 

ogis 

ocsop 

sopsop           j 

sogod 

sooc 

goles 

balas 

osisang 

cosisang 

solog 

solod 

gonas 

honas 

pasagdan 

pasagad 

solot 

solod 

gonos 

onos 

posong 

tagiposoon 

sool 

sahol 

gosay 

hosay 

quipos 

hipos 

sopla 

sompa 

gosig 

osig 

saa 

saha 

sora 

isda 

gosod 

sogot 

saac 

socna 

tamisac 

pisac 

guinocsip 

sinapsap 

sacog 

sacop             1 

tobos 

tapos 

guinonsola 

hinolsol 

sansang 

sangsang       | 

toUsan 

tampalasan 

guisip 

isip 

sayoron 

sayod 

84 


THE   SUBANU. 


The  most  frequent  mutation  of  the  sibilant  in  the  greater  number 
of  languages  is  to  the  aspiration ;  therefore  it  is  noteworthy  that  we  find 
but  one  trace  in  the  Visayan-Subanu,  namely  tocsocan-iohogan. 

The  instances  in  which  s  is  present  in  one  language  and  absent  in 
the  other  number  five. 


Subanu. 


Visayan. 


doque 
matugas 

Atypical: 
guilos 
liga 
ngisi 


sontoc 
tiga 

iring 
siga 
ngipon 


Subanu.         Visayan. 


puli 
sindil 


panas 
panga 


balos 
indig 

hil&nat 
sanga 


Subanu.        Visayan. 


sopingi 


sapulu 
sombag 


aping 


nap61o 
tobag 


The  first  and  most  casual  inspection  of  the  vocabulary  makes  mani- 
fest mutation  variety  in  the  mutes  so  great  and  seemingly  so  intricate 
that  it  will  be  necessary  to  subject  these  ultimate  consonants  to  a  more 
minute  classification  in  subdivision  than  the  earlier  consonants  have 
called  for.  Following  the  natural  evolutionary  order  we  shall  first  con- 
sider the  palatal  mutes  and  in  this  pair  the  surd  will  first  engage  our 
attention.  It  will  be  well  to  order  the  instances  in  accordance  with 
their  position  as  initial,  medial,  and  final. 


Subanu.           Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Type  k  (c,  qu)  initial  common. 

caya                 cana 

gMicoran 

lingcodan 

casit 

saquit 

cotooto            cot6cot6 

guingcod 

lingcod 

Type  k  initial  (Subanu). 

cogool              olol 

poquicot 

hocot 

quipos 

hipos 

pogHqnixao       /?aghimo 

Type  k  initial  (Visayan). 

amo                  camo 

atandanan 

catongdanan 

osisang 

cosisang 

anding             canding 

atodanan 

catongdanan 

Type  k  initial  atypical. 

lamo                 camo 

mita 

quita 

nano 

cano 

Type  k  medial  common. 

bencong           bingcong 

ocdoc 

docdoc 

sacog 

sacop 

bingcon            botcon 

ocom 

hocom 

sicol 

sicad 

gaclop              haclop 

ponicol 

panicad 

socog 

cosog 

gaco                  aco 

Type  k-g  medial. 

tocsocan 

tohogan 

Type  k  medial  (Subanu). 

boclag 

bolag 

ocsop 

sopsop 

Type  k  medial  (Visayan). 

bolaan              bolacan 

laang 

lacat 

moli6 

balico 

bui                    boquid 

lee 

lalaqui 

tioan 

potiocan 

goot                  hacot 

loop 

locop 

Type  g  final  common. 

bocbaac           baqui 

logoc 

looc 

ondoc 

hadloc 

booc                 bohoc 

lompoc 

tapoc 

saac 

socna 

doque                sontoc 

momoc 

homoc 

tamisac 

pisac 

Type  k-g  final.       atoc 

tagno 

tauac 

taoag 

Type  k-d.              loletoec 

toadtoad 

(dao 

caoat) 

Type  g  initial  common. 

gaitan               gahit 

gont6 

gonto 

guien 

guini 

gaom                gahom 

gosod 

sogot 

guinaoa 

guinhaoa 

gonlo                onglo 

Type  g-k  initial. 

gaan                 caon 

gomog 

camot 

guilat 

quilat 

gam6                cam6 

gomot 

camot 

guilid 

quilid 

gayo                cahoy 

SUBANU-VISAYAN  FILIATION. 


85 


(Continued  from  p.  84.) 


Subanu.           Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Type  g-h  initial. 

gaclop              haclop 

gonagona 

honahona 

goot 

hacot 

gangay             hangay 

gonas 

bonds 

gosay 

hosay 

gare                  hari 

gongog 

hongog 

guinonsola 

hinolsol 

Type  g  initial  (Subanu). 

gabo                 abo 

gasoy 

asoy 

gopao 

opao 

gaco                 aco 

gatop 

atop 

gosig 

osig 

gagda               agda 

gina 

inahan 

goyon 

oyon 

galad                alad 

goguis 

ogis 

guibid 

ibid 

gama                amahan 

golitao 

olitao 

guibog 

ibog 

gampo              ampo 

golo 

olo 

guilan 

ila 

gantoson          antos 

gonom 

on6m 

guilos 

iring 

gangay             angay 

gonos 

onos 

guinom 

inom 

gapo                 apohan 

gooay 

ooay 

guisip 

isip 

gapog               apog 

gopa 

opa 

guito 

ido 

gasintos           asintos 

Type  g  medial  common. 

dagom              tagom 

logong 

logon 

niguan 

ligoan 

lagoy                laguio 

matugas 

tiga 

pasagdan 

pasagad 

liga                   siga 

mogonao 

bognao 

poraigon 

padayigon 

linagami           dagami 

monlogos 

mamomogos 

Type  g-k  medial. 

lagi 

lalaqui 

logud 

licod 

Type  g  medial  (Subanu). 

logalin              lain 

lugbas 

lapos 

sogod 

sooc 

logoc                looc 

magalin 

balhin 

Type  g  medial  (Visayan). 

loon 

daghan 

Type  g  final  common. 

baga                pagcahobag 

bondyag 

bonyag 

inog 

hinog 

blag                  bihag 

daig 

dayig 

sombag 

tobag 

boclag              bolag 

donlag 

damlag 

Type  g-k  final. 

dipag 

taboc 

log 

lihoc 

Type  g  final  (Subanu). 

bolig 

bala 

Type  g-d  final. 

solog 

solod 

timod 

tigom  (timog) 

Atypical : 

bogguiong        bodyong 

gocsip 

sipsip 

guingcod 

lingcod 

goles                 balas 

goles 

balas 

litobong 

hagbong 

gomot               domot 

guicoran 

lingcodan 

sacog 

sacop     . 

good                 dool 

guindog 

tindog 

sindil 

indig 

gabang             tabang 

guinocsip 

sinapsap 

soggo 

sodoc 

gatbang           tobang 

Of  the  lingual  mutes  the  surd  t  displays  very  slight  mutability. 
We  shall  first  list  the  common  instances  arrayed  according  to  position. 


Subanu.             Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Type  t  common  initial. 

ctandanan       catongdanan 

taron 

tadong 

tolisan 

tampalasan 

ctoc                  tagna 

tauac 

taoay 

tom 

itom 

ctodanan         catongdanan 

tee 

tai 

tondo 

todlo 

gatbang            tobang 

timod 

tigom 

tondong 

tongod 

loletoec            toadtoad 

tioan 

/)otiocan 

tonggab 

tongab 

matugas           tiga 

tobang 

atobang 

torong 

tadong 

taap                  tahap 

tobos 

tapos 

tungdong 

tongod 

taod                 tahod 

tocsocan 

tohogan 

Type  t  medial  common. 

atud                 hatod 

gantoson 

antos 

lotang 

lothan 

bangitao          balanghitao 

gasintos 

asintos 

marongot 

maligotogoton 

binutong          ibotang 

gatop 

atop 

mita 

quita 

buta                 botang 

golitao 

olitaoo 

ponopoton 

panapton 

cotooto            cot6cot6 

goto 

gont6 

potao 

pothao 

Type  t  final  common. 

casit                  saquit 

goot 

hacot 

lolat 

holat 

gaitan               gahit 

guilat 

quilat 

maloot 

lolot 

gomot               camot 

impit 

hingpit 

poquicot 

hocot 

gomot              domot 

laat 

daot 

ulatay 

holat 

86 


THH   SUBANU. 


Subanu.             Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Type  lingual  mutation. 

lompoc                 tapoc 

sombag 

tobag 

solot 

solod 

lopong                  topong 

guito 

ido 

talinga 

dalonggan 

panas                   hilanat 

Type  linguo-palatal  mutation. 

bingcon                botcon 

gabang 

tabang 

guindog 

tindog 

laang                    lacat 

gomog 

camot 

Type  linguo-labial  mutation. 

mopong 

topong 

In  an  interesting  and  probably  important  contrast  the  lingual  surd 
mute  d  is  far  less  constant,  a  difference  which  comparison  with  the 
immediately  foregoing  tabulation  will  show  to  the  glance. 


Subanu.                Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Type  d  initial  common. 

daan                     dalan 

deni 

dinhi 

doon 

dona 

daig                      dayig 

donlag 

damlag 

dua 

doha 

dalinduman         domdom 

doon 

dahon 

ocdoc 

docdoc 

Type  d  medial  common. 

anding                  canding 

gagda 

agda 

ondoc 

hadloc 

atandanan           catongdanan 

guindog 

tindog 

sindil 

indig 

atodanan             catongdanan 

ondao 

adlao 

tondo 

todlo 

Type  d  final  common. 

aoid                      haoid 

guilid 

quilid 

lood 

lohod 

atod                     hatud 

guingcod 

lingcod 

pasagdan 

pasagad 

galad                    alad 

logud 

licod 

taod 

tahod 

guibid                  ibid 

lonsod 

longsod 

Type  linguo-palatal  mutation. 

porang                 bolad 

good 

dool 

dao 

caoat 

balidya                baligya 

soggo 

sodoc 

loletoec 

toadtoad 

bogguiong            bodyong 

solog 

solod 

sogod 

sooc 

gomot                  domot 

timod 

tigom  (timog) 

Type  lingual  mutation. 

dula                      loa 

poraigon 

padayigon 

lonao 

lodhao 

guilos                   iding 

porong 

podong 

dagom 

tagom 

laat                      daot 

sayoron 

sayod 

dipag 

taboc 

loon                      daghan 

sora 

isda 

donaan 

toton 

ponicol                 panicad 

taron 

tadong 

doque 

50MtOC 

gare                      hadi 

torong 

tadong 

gosod 

sogot 

laraban                ladaoan 

donot 

non6t 

solot 

solod 

Atypical. 

bondyag              bonyag 

dala 

oala 

tungdong 

tongod 

bui                        boquid 

tondong 

tongod 

Last  of  all  we  reach  the  labial  mutes,  the  strongest  expression  of 
the  consonant  modulation  power  of  this  organ.  The  surd  p  is  almost 
Dositive,  so  very  scanty  are  its  variants. 


Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Type  p  common. 

gaclop 

haclop 

loop 

locop 

poporenion 

paanhion 

gampo 

ampo 

lopong 

topong 

poraigon 

padayigon 

gapo 

apohan 

mopong 

topong 

porong 

podong 

gapog 

apog 

ocsop 

sopsop 

posong 

tagipos6on 

gatop 

atop 

pasagdan 

pasagad 

potao 

pothao 

gocsip 

sipsip 

palon 

palong 

puonan 

pohonan 

gopa 

opa 

pogliquimo 

paghimo 

quipos 

hipos 

gopao 

opao 

ponicol 

panicad 

sapulu 

nap61o 

gumocsip 

sinapsap 

ponopoton 

pandpton 

sopmgi 

apmg 

guisip 

isip 

pongon 

ipon 

sopla 

sorapa 

impit 

hingpit 

pongong 

pogong 

taap 

tahap 

lompoc 

tapoc 

SUBANU-VISAYAN  FILIATION. 


87 


(Continued  from  p.  86.) 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Visayan, 

Type  p-b. 

dipag 

taboc 

porang 

bolad 

puli 

balos 

peen 

baihon 

Atypical. 

panas 

hilanat 

sacog 

sacop 

tamisac 

pisac 

panga 

sanga 

Type  b  common. 

baa 

baha 

bocbaac 

baqui 

gabo 

abo 

baga 

pagcahobag 

boclag 

bolag 

gatbang 

tobang 

balidya 

baligya 

bogguiong 

bodyong 

guibid 

ibid 

bangitao 

balanghitao 

boi 

bohi 

guibog 

ibog 

bencong 

bingcong 

bolaan 

bolacan 

libongan 

ibobongan 

biag 

bihag 

bolig 

bala 

litobong 

hagbong 

bila 

abian 

bone 

binhi 

sinbaan 

singbahan 

binal 

baol 

booc 

bohoc 

sombag 

tobag 

binutong 

ibotang 

buta 

botang 

tobang 

atobang 

bingcon 

botcon 

gabang 

tabang 

tonggab 

tongab 

Type  b-p. 

bolao 

paolao 

lugbas 

lapos 

tobos 

tapes 

From  our  comparison  of  Subanu  and  Visayan  we  shall  properly 
omit  the  many  instances  in  the  foregoing  tabulation  where  community 
of  consonants  is  manifest,  for  these  instances  lack  critical  value.  In  the 
residue  of  differences  we  are  struck  at  once  by  the  fact  that  practically 
every  difference  is  double ;  that  as  soon  as  we  have  established  it  as  sub- 
sisting between  Subanu  and  Visayan  we  discover  its  converse  existence 
as  between  Visayan  and  Subanu.  This  is  typically  instanced  in  the 
second  table  on  page  8i  in  the  case  of  the  vanished  1:  Subanu  bila  is 
Visayan  abian;  on  the  other  hand  we  are  estopped  from  the  behef  that 
Visayan  drops  an  1  present  in  Subanu,  for  we  find  immediately  Subanu 
daan  and  Visayan  dalan  in  a  case  where  we  have  positive  knowledge 
that  the  1  pertains  to  the  stem.  This  tells  a  tale.  No  such  interplay 
of  differences  can  hold  between  a  parent  and  a  daughter  speech,  but  it 
can  hold  between  languages  descending  from  a  common  parent. 

We  shall  find  more  to  the  same  point  in  the  examination  of  what 
may  readily  be  designated  speech  biology.  These  languages  are  of  the 
agglutinative  type,  a  stage  in  advance  of  the  isolating  class,  yet  still  in 
the  development  stages  of  consonant  acquisition.  We  see  that  the 
greatest  fixity  of  the  consonants  holds  in  the  mutes,  the  most  forceful 
expression  of  consonant  possibiUty;  and  within  the  class  of  the  mutes 
we  observe  that  fluctuation  is  most  noted  in  the  sonants,  essentially  a 
less  precise  result  of  the  positioning  of  the  speech  organs  than  the  surds  of 
the  same  series.  The  maximum  variety  (equally  the  maximum  range  of 
variation),  lies  in  the  region  where  are  formed  the  semivowels,  the  nasals, 
the  aspiration,  and  the  sibilant.  These  are  all  sounds  produced  by 
the  less  forceful  exercise  of  consonant-forming  power ;  therefore,  where 
the  differences  in  position  of  the  appropriate  closures  is  but  sUght,  it  is 
natural  for  men  to  whom  precise  speech  is  not  yet  an  art  fully  acquired, 
or  even  needed,  to  fall  far  short  of  precision  in  sound  formation. 


88  THE   SUBANU. 

The  examination  of  the  variety  by  reference  to  the  speech-organs 
employed  points  in  the  same  direction.  The  least  variously  utiUzed 
organ  is  the  Ups :  only  two  closures  have  been  taken  into  speech  use,  the 
minimum  and  the  maximum ;  here  we  find  almost  no  variety  in  the  com- 
parison of  Subanu  and  Visayan.  The  palate,  the  speech-organ  which 
first  came  under  control,  is  the  least  flexible  of  the  speech-organs  and 
is  commonly  established  in  the  primitive  languages  in  but  two  closures, 
the  minimum  and  the  maximum.  Here  again,  although  the  variety  is 
somewhat  greater  than  in  the  labials,  it  amounts  to  Uttle  in  the  sum. 

But  when  we  give  our  attention  to  the  hngual  series  we  are  filled 
with  amazement  at  the  amount  and  extent  of  the  mutation -variety. 
Its  mutes  are  fixed ;  that  is  to  say,  the  speakers  of  these  languages  are 
able  to  attain  the  maximum  of  the  speech  effort  to  which  the  tongue 
lends  itself;  beyond  that  maximum  it  is  in  essence  impossible  to  go; 
therefore  the  mutes  must  be  a  fixed  quality.  KarUer  in  this  chapter  I 
have  pointed  out  the  character  of  force  in  speech :  how  that  initials  and 
finals  are  more  forcible,  and  that  weaker  forms  supervene  when  either 
is  brought  within  the  interior  of  the  word.  Those  of  us  who  have  had 
much  intercourse  with  the  inferior  races  of  mankind  have  recognized  in 
the  declamation  of  their  speech  this  quality  of  word  force.  We  employ 
it  ourselves  in  speaking  to  children  and  foreigners  and  other  unfortu- 
nates not  fully  in  possession  of  their  wits ;  we  aim  to  speak  distinctly  in 
order  to  make  comprehension  sure.  The  primitive  races  are  all  children 
together,  and  we  need  go  no  further  than  the  next  school-yard  at  recess 
time  to  appreciate  the  dynamic  force  with  which  children  converse 
among  themselves. 

Omitting,  then,  the  Hngual  mutes  as  under  the  dominance  of 
another  set  of  influences,  we  find  that  in  Subanu  and  Visayan  the  tongue 
is  a  most  uncertain  member.  It  is  within  the  power  of  these  speakers  to 
put  the  tongue  in  all  but  one  of  its  standard  closures,  yet  the  positioning 
is  so  insecure  that  we  have  seen  in  the  tabulation  (pages  85  and  86) 
that  any  closture  may  and  does  slip  in  to  any  other  closiu"e  of  the  same 
organ.  More  than  that,  we  find  that  the  duty  of  the  tongue  is  not 
infrequently  deHvered  over  to  the  palate  to  perform,  a  return  from  the 
imperfectly  mastered  organ  to  one  whose  control  is  more  sure  and  whose 
use  is  directed  by  longer  famiharity  of  habit. 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  Subanu  and  Visayan  together,  as  in 
some  as  yet  undetermined  relation  of  fiUation.  The  phonetic  variety 
will  not  lead  us  directly  to  the  determination  of  the  nature  of  this  fiHa- 
tion,  for  the  mutation  is  by  no  means  in  a  single  direction.  We  are  not 
able  to  assume,  for  example,  that  the  Visayan  is  the  source  speech  and 
that  Subanu  diverges  therefrom  by  dialectic  variety  exhibited  in  a 
certain  array  of  mutation  instances ;  for  in  fact  we  find  that  for  every 
mutation  in  one  direction  between  Visayan  and  Subanu  there  is  its 
converse  in  the  other  direction  between  Subanu  and  Visayan. 


SUBANU-VISAYAN  FILIATION.  89 

Yet  we  are  not  without  data  which  may  be  applied  toward  the  solu- 
tion of  the  problem.  The  formative  elements  tell  a  tale  of  importance. 
In  general  we  observe  that  the  Visayan  employs  all  the  composition 
members  which  are  in  Subanu  use.  From  the  dictionary  of  Fray  Juan 
FeUx  we  find  that  the  Visayan  has  in  use  a  considerable  number  of  such 
members  which  the  Subanu  lacks.  This  is  particularly  to  be  noticed  in 
the  matter  of  the  infixes,  those  puzzUng  yet  very  convenient  marks  of  a 
word-treatment  which  is  just  beginning  to  reach  out  toward  inflectional 
value.  From  this  we  begin  to  form  the  impression  that  the  Subanu 
represents  an  earUer  phase  of  a  common  speech ;  that  it  has  not  under- 
gone the  development  which  accession  of  higher  culture  has  induced 
among  the  Visayans. 

The  geography  of  the  culture  site  of  the  Subanu  leads  us  in  the 
same  direction.  On  the  ethnographic  chart  in  Father  Algue's  "Atlas  de 
Filipinas"  the  Visayans  are  indicated  as  occupying  a  somewhat  compact 
area  in  the  mid  PhiHppines.  Their  settlements  are  principally  found  on 
Negros,  Cebu,  Bohol,  Siquijor,  Leyte,  Samar.  North  of  this  center  the 
islands  of  Panay,  Masbate,  Tablas,  Rombl6n,  and  Sibuyan  show  more 
or  less  extended  occupation  by  this  stock.  Toward  the  south  they  are 
found  in  settlement  at  spots  upon  the  north  coast  of  Mindanao,  on  the 
east  shore  of  the  Bay  of  lUgan,  on  its  west  shore  as  far  as  Dapitan,  on  the 
northeast  coast  from  Surigao  toLianga,  and  upon  the  outlying  islands  of 
Dinagat  and  Siargao.  This  plot  shows  distinctly  the  movement  of  the 
Visayans  in  their  advance  upon  the  archipelago,  for  it  is  indisputable 
that  they  are  a  Malayan  race  both  Unguistically  and  ethnologically. 

From  the  tip  of  Borneo  two  well-marked  Unes  He  before  the  coast- 
wise seamen  of  the  prahu.  The  northern  fine  leads  from  the  north 
shore  of  Borneo  by  Balbac,  Paragua,  and  Busuanga  direct  to  Mindoro, 
with  not  a  trace  of  Visayans  along  the  Une.  The  southern  Une  of 
approach,  after  leaving  the  south  coast  of  Borneo,  leads  by  Tawitawi, 
Jolo,  Basilan,  and  Zamboanga  directly  to  the  abodes  of  the  Subanu  and 
to  the  center  of  Visayan  Ufe  and  settlement  spread  over  the  area  from 
Negros  to  Samar.  The  position  in  which  the  Subanu  lie  relative  to  this 
broad  avenue  of  Visayan  migration  indicates  for  them  an  early  asso- 
ciation with  the  main  body  of  migrants.  Having  taken  possession  of 
this  region  north  of  Zamboanga,  they  withdrew  to  the  interior  of  the 
country  for  the  usual  protection  of  weak  peoples  by  evasion.  Thus 
they  lost  touch  with  the  greater  members  of  their  race ;  they  remained 
undeveloped  in  their  inland  seclusion  and  now  present  an  earher  type, 
perhaps  the  earliest  type  of  the  race  which  with  greater  freedom  of 
development  under  better  settlement  conditions  has  marched  forward 
to  such  progress  as  now  marks  the  Visayan  culture. 

By  combination  of  all  these  considerations  we  reach  the  conclusion 
that  the  Subanu  are  of  the  Visayan  race,  that  their  language  represents 
an  early  phase  of  the  Visayan,  and  that  future  investigation  may  bring 


90 


THE   SUBANU. 


to  light  the  fact  that  its  vocabulary  preserves  many  vocables  which  in 
the  general  Visayan  are  but  rarely  encountered. 

It  is  wide  of  the  purpose  of  this  work  to  point  out  in  the  vocabulary 
the  Malay  affiliates.  We  do  not  need  them  for  proof  that  the  language 
is  Malayan,  and  it  would  do  no  more  than  duphcate  work  already 
familiar.  The  only  exception  which  I  have  made  is  in  the  case  of  a  few 
vocables  for  which  I  have  noted  affihations  in  several  languages  in  the 
Celebes  waters.  These  were  collated  in  Dr.  Elbert's  Sunda  Expedi- 
tion, while  the  study  of  Subanu  was  in  progress,  and  are  therefore  quite 
new  and  undoubtedly  welcome  additions  to  the  stock  of  Malay  com- 
parative material. 

There  remain  for  our  consideration  a  double-handful  of  examples  of 
a  mutation  which  is  certainly  anomalous,  for  it  does  not  fall  within  the 
ordinarily  estabUshed  categories  of  phonetic  variabihty.  Absolutely 
these  examples  are  few,  yet  it  is  clear  from  their  repetition  for  so  many 
as  are  here  shown  that  they  represent  a  speech  principle.  Therefore 
they  are  worthy  of  our  examination  in  order  that  we  may  discover  the 
principle  which  is  operative.  So  far,  when  it  has  been  necessary  to  refer 
to  any  of  these  vocables  in  passing,  I  have  classed  them  as  inversion; 
now  we  shall  see  of  what  nature  they  really  are. 

For  readier  vision,  let  us  first  see  what  would  be  the  result  if  the 
principle  were  a  part  of  our  own  speech  equipment,  since  it  is  much 
easier  to  study  it  when  applied  to  vocables  more  familiar  than  any 
which  may  be  drawn  from  the  distant  Subanu.  From  the  Latin  ruga 
we  derive  the  adjective  rugose;  if  this  principle  were  at  work  in  oiu* 
hnguistics  we  should  have  gurose  or  urgose;  from  the  German  heten  we 
should  have  tehe  or  edhe  in  place  of  hede  as  in  bederoU.  These  illustra- 
tions in  famiUar  material,  so  far  as  they  have  true  apphcabiUty  to  the 
matter,  will  show  us  that  there  are  two  possible  forms ;  that  there  is  an 
interchange  of  consonants  between  the  second  and  first  syllables ;  that 
the  syllable  itself  is  inverted  and  its  initial  consonant  is  made  final.  In 
our  Subanu  material  we  must  discover  which  of  these  takes  place. 

Omitting  here  all  consideration  of  the  usual  phonetic  variation 
which  may  or  may  not  affect  the  form  of  the  compared  vocables,  we 
present  the  examples  in  similar  groups : 


Subanu 
Visayan 

casit 
saquit 

gosod 
sogot 

socog 
cosog 

In  these  the  change  has  afifected  the  initial  syllable  Twe^find  the 
same  number  of  instances  in  which  it  has  been  appHed  to  the  final  syl- 
lable. 


Subanu              timod 
Visayan             tigom 

tondong 
tongod 

tungdong 
tongod 

SUBANU-VISAYAN  FlUATlON. 


91 


So  far  as  relates  to  the  former  group,  we  might  conclude  that  the 
process  was  an  interchange  of  the  initial  consonants  of  the  former  and 
the  latter  syllables,  regarding  the  initial  syllable  in  each  case  as  open, 
that  is,  consisting  of  consonant  and  vowel.  In  the  second  group  we 
should  have,  in  continuation  of  the  theory  that  the  interchange  is 
between  one  syllable  and  another,  to  regard  each  syllable  as  closed  and 
that  the  movement  applied  to  final  consonants.  This  is  by  no  means 
satisfactory ;  it  involves  a  comphcation  which  is  foreign  to  language  of 
so  elemental  a  type. 

Our  next  group  of  three  will  afford  us  a  better  view  of  the  process. 


Subanu 
Visayan 

gonlo 
onglo 

luma 
odma 

sora 
isda 

Here  we  have  no  difficulty  in  seeing  that  the  syllabification  is 
gon-lo,  lu-ma,  so-ra.  This  makes  clear  what  has  happened,  the  initial 
syllable  has  been  inverted  without  any  doubt  in  luma  and  sora,  lu-ma-ul- 
nta-od-ma,  so-ra-os-ra-is-da.  In  the  first  group  of  three  we  find  the 
same  syllable  inversion  in  all  three  cases ;  gos-od-sog-od-sog-ot.  In  the 
second  group  it  holds;  H-mod-ti-dom-ti-gom. 

There  remain  now  three  apparent  anomaUes,  gonlo,  tondong,  tung- 
dong.  Instead  of  nog-lo  we  find  ong-lo;  instead  of  ton-ngod  ton-god; 
instead  of  tung-ngod  ton-god.  Since  all  involve  the  palatal  nasal  we 
may  safely  conclude  that  the  same  principle  of  inversion  of  syllables  is 
operative,  but  that  the  result  is  subjected  to  perturbation  produced  by 
some  attractive  quality  in  the  palatal  nasal,  a  closure  which  we  have 
estabHshed  as  among  the  first  of  the  consonant  possibiHties  to  be 
developed. 

Our  material  affords  us  a  group  of  four  vocables,  in  which  at  first 
sight  there  appears  to  exist  a  different  type  of  inversion,  the  interchange 
of  consonants  concurrently  brought  together.     They  are  these: 


Subanu 
Visayan 

ondao 
adlao 

ondoc 
hadloc 

sopla 
sompa 

tondo 
todlo 

As  these  have  arisen  for  consideration  in  the  foregoing  text  I  have 
indicated  a  more  satisfactory  explanation,  that  when  for  any  reason  a 
liquid  is  assumed  by  the  stem  the  preface  of  the  series  nasal  is  dropped 
by  the  stem  mute ;  or,  that  when  a  stem  Hquid  is  dropped  the  mute  is 
prefaced  by  way  of  compensation.  Just  which  of  these  two  statements 
is  the  proper  view  must  await  the  determination  of  the  true  stem  in 
these  words  and  that  can  be  accomplished  only  by  following  them 
through  their  various  occurrences  in  Indonesia. 

The  Bontoc  Igorot  affords  us  three  instances  of  inversion  which 
may  properly  be  adduced  for  comparison. 


Subanu 
Bontoc 

gosa 
ogsa 

lipay 
paley 

niug 
inyog 

92  THE   SUBANU. 

These  are  confirmatory  of  the  deductions  which  have  been  drawn 
from  the  Subanu  material ;  in  the  first  and  third  of  these  inverts  there 
can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  the  initial  syllable  is  inverted  as  a  unit, 
in  the  second  invert  we  shall  find  justification  in  regarding  the  inversion 
as  of  the  same  type. 

This  theory  of  inversion  as  dealing  with  syllable  units  comports 
with  our  broader  comprehension  of  languages  so  primitive  as  are  these 
of  agglutination.  While  the  word-stem  is  frequently  dissyllabic  we 
must  regard  it  as  compact  of  monosyllabic  roots.  In  the  languages  of 
isolation  the  two  roots  which  enter  the  stem  are  capable  of  independent 
existence  and  most  commonly  are  found  free  in  the  same  speech.  In 
agglutination  the  secondary  root  has  in  most  cases  ceased  its  free  exist- 
ence and  in  the  process  of  such  disuse  has  undergone  more  or  less  of 
form-change,  so  that  it  has  become  merely  a  composition  member. 
The  principal  root  remains  susceptible  of  necessary  modification  as  a 
speedi  unit.  I  may  note  the  occurrence  of  this  type  of  inversion, 
though  infrequent,  in  the  isolating  languages  of  Melanesia. 

It  was  not  within  my  original  plans  for  the  scope  of  this  work  that 
the  collation  of  the  Subanu  afi&liation  should  extend  beyond  the  im- 
mediately circumjacent  Visayan.  It  was  easy  to  recognize  that  in 
the  many  languages  of  the  Philippines  many  interesting  discoveries 
might  be  made  and  that  more  extended  study  must  be  fruitful  in  valu- 
able results.  After  due  consideration  I  determined  to  relinquish  this 
study  to  those  whose  concern  is  more  specifically  directed  to  Philippine 
linguistics  and  to  those  masters  of  Malay  philology  who  may  be  ex- 
pected to  deal  with  the  new  material  which  has  been  given  me  to  arrange 
and  to  order  for  their  examination.  It  will  be  understood  that  my 
particular  object  has  been  to  sift  this  Subanu  for  such  data  as  might  be 
found  to  bear  upon  my  own  specific  study  of  the  early  phases  of  the 
Poljmesian  speech.     With  that  I  am  quite  content. 

But  it  chanced  that  while  these  pages  were  being  put  into  type 
my  attention  was  somewhat  fortuitously  directed  to  Dr.  Seidenadel's 
study  of  the  language  of  the  Bontoc  Igorot.  Immediately  I  recognized 
a  marked  similarity  in  parts  of  the  vocabularies  of  the  two  races.  They 
are  widely  separated;  almost  the  whole  length  of  the  archipelago  lies 
between  the  Igorot  of  Bontoc  in  the  northern  tip  of  I^uzon  and  the 
Subanu  of  the  southern  extremity  of  Mindanao.  Despite  the  dis- 
tance which  parts  them  they  have  one  condition  in  common:  each 
is  interiorly  situated  with  reference  to  a  Malayan  people  of  more 
advanced  culture  and  richer  development;  the  Subanu  an  inclusion 
within  the  Visayan  area,  the  Bontoc  Igorot  within  the  Tagalog  region 
of  predominance. 

Despite  linguistic  differences,  this  condition  is  readily  compre- 
hensible in  our  acquaintance  with  the  Philippines .  The  Aet as  and  others 
of  the  true  negritos  represent  the  survivors  of  a  primitive  autochtho- 


SUB ANU- VISA YAN   FILIATION. 


93 


nous  people  who  were  feebly  in  possession  of  the  islands  at  the  time  of 
the  coming  of  the  first  wave  of  Malay  migration.  Unfit  to  make  a 
successful  stand  against  the  better-equipped  invaders  these  almost 
pygmy  people  withdrew  to  the  mountains  where  they  could  preserve 
in  uninterrupted  simplicity  their  rude  life  but  little  advanced  above  the 
plane  of  social  animals.  In  the  same  manner  the  earliest  Malayan 
settlers  were  dealt  with  by  later  swarms  of  their  own  race;  before  the 
better  fighters  they,  too,  withdrew  from  the  coasts  and  found  a  refuge 
in  the  seclusion  of  the  mountains.  This  we  may  readily  comprehend 
in  the  case  of  the  Subanu  shyly  retreating  before  their  Visayan  kinsmen. 
I  think  that  further  study  will  establish  this  as  fact  in  the  case  of  the 
Bontoc  Igorot,  that  they  are  in  some  sense  poor  and  primitive  relations 
of  the  Tagals  who  have  established  themselves  as  the  dominant  race  of 
the  northern  area  of  the  Philippines. 

At  the  present  time  there  is  marked  difference  between  the  Tagals 
of  the  north  and  the  Visayans  of  the  south.  This  difference  is  nowhere 
more  marked  than  in  speech;  mutually  incomprehensible  they  would 
not  be  identified  as  of  the  same  stock  save  upon  philological  investi- 
gation. This  diversity  of  settlement  is  an  afifair  of  somewhat  modern 
times ;  at  least  it  has  been  formed  in  the  last  wave  of  migration  which 
established  the  settlement  of  the  Philippines  as  we  now  see  it.  It  is 
not  in  the  least  necessary  to  postulate  the  same  diversity  for  the  earUer 
migration  wave  out  of  western  Malaysia,  it  is  quite  possible  that  the 
first  settlers  were  far  more  homogeneous.  Therefore  it  need  cause  us 
no  surprise  should  we  discover  a  relation  between  Subanu  and  Bontoc 
Igorot  of  the  earher  migration  which  may  imply  community  of  origin. 

In  the  collation  of  Seidenadel's  vocabulary  of  the  Bontoc  Igorot 
I  have  succeeded  in  identifying  90  affiliates  which  may  be  recognized  in 
the  Subanu  with  no  great  difficulty.  A  very  considerable  number  of 
these  affiUates  he  within  the  element  common  to  Malayan  and  Poly- 
nesian ;  therefore  they  add  their  confirmation  to  the  conclusions  which 
I  base  upon  the  similar  element  of  the  Subanu.  These  affiUates  I  shall 
list  in  tables  based  upon  the  several  phonetic  elements  involved  in 
order  to  facilitate  our  topical  consideration  of  the  material. 

The  Uquid  1  is  practically  common  to  Subanu  and  Bontoc  Igorot 
as  shown  in  this  table : 


Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

1    Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

dalan 

djalan 

1     lima 

lima               \ 

salamin 

salming 

dila 

djila 

linao 

alinoao 

salapi 

salapi 

galad 

alad 

lipay 

paley 

sapulu 

polo 

golo 

olo 

lua 

lua 

sulat 

suladak 

goloan 

olaoan 

lusung 

luson 

sulu 

sillu 

gulungan 

kolong 

palad 

talad 

tolo 

tolo 

laga 

lago 

palay 

palay 

tolod 

itoludko 

lagi 

lalaki 

pilak 

bilak 

tongalang 

alang 

laneg 

lanib 

pili 

pili 

walu 

walo 

lasag 

kalasay 

94 


THE    SUBANU. 


The  only  instances 

of  1-mutation  are  these 

• 

Subanu.             Bontoc. 

Subanu.            Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

bulan                 buan 
sapulu               po'o 

lanao                 tjanaom 
ngalan                ngatjan 

ngalan 
gare 

ngadan 
ali 

The  loss  of  1  is  found  within  the  Subanu,  as,  for  instance,  the 
alternative  forms  dalan  and  daan.  The  interchange  of  r-l  in  gare-ali 
is  so  sUght  and  so  familiar  as  to  attract  no  attention.  The  mutation 
1-d  and  the  slight  variant  1-tj  is  mutation  in  series,  therefore  readily 
to  be  comprehended,  it  is  passage  from  the  weaker  effort  of  Ungual 
closure  to  the  most  forceful  efifort  in  1-d  or  stopping  in  1-tj  just  short 
of  that  Hmit. 

The  palatal  nasal  ng  is  found  for  the  most  part  unchanged;  the 
only  instances  of  variety  are  ng-n  in  liisung-luson  and  the  dropping 
of  the  sound  in  posong-poso.  The  instances  where  this  consonant 
remains  unaltered  are  the  following : 


Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

gulungan 

ngalan 

panga 

kolong 
ngadan 
panga 

payung 
saguing 
sising 

payong 

saking 

singsing 

sopingi 
tongalang 

iping 
alang 

The  lingual  nasal  n  exhibits  a  minimum  of  mutation.     The  stems 
in  which  it  appears  unchanged  in  the  two  languages  afford  us  this  table : 


Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

bulan 

buan. 

lanao 

tjanaom 

niug 

niyog 

cana 

kanek 

laneg 

lanib 

ngalan 

ngadan 

goloan 

olaoan 

linao 

alinoao 

pono 

punek 

gonom 

mim 

manoc 

monok 

sigupan 

songyopan 

ina 

ma 

masm 

asm 

sinbaan 

simfan 

inom 

inumek 

mmsan 

mammgsan 

toon 

taaowin 

The  recessive  inter-organic  mutation  from  Ungual  to  palatal, 
n-ng,  is  found  in  the  three  instances  cana-mangan,  minsan-mamingsan, 
salamin-salming;  the  progressive  mutation  ng-n  has  been  noted  in 
a  single  instance.  The  progressive  inter-organic  mutation  from  Ungual 
to  labial,  n-m,  is  found  in  the  single  instance  of  sinbaan-simfan;  this 
is  readily  expUcable  by  attraction  to  the  labial  tract  in  the  effort  to 
produce  the  surd  spirant  f  in  an  intermediate  lip  closure  not  yet  fully  in 
the  habit  of  the  speech.     We  note  such  attraction  in  the  Subanu  itself. 

Quite  as  we  should  expect  from  our  acquaintance  with  languages  of 
this  type,  the  labial  nasal  m  exhibits  no  mutation  phases  in  this  material ; 
the  occurrences  of  its  community  are  noted  in  the  following  table: 


Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

gama 
gonom 
inom 
lima 

ama 
inim 
inumek 
lima 

manoc 

mata 

minsan 

monok 

mata 

mamingsan 

salamin 

siam 

sombag 

salming 

siam 

samfad 

SUBANU-VISAYAN   FILIATION. 


95 


We  note  two  instances  which  suggest  the  abrasion  of  m-initial, 
masin-asin,  matay-idoy.  Each  will  receive  more  full  discussion  in 
the  next  chapter ;  in  the  latter  case  it  is  clear  that  we  are  not  concerned 
with  frontal  abrasion,  but  that  the  Bontoc  stem  is  a  primitive  while 
the  Subanu  has  arrived  at  secondary  development  by  the  appUcation 
of  the  ma  prefix  of  condition. 

The  examination  of  the  palatal  mutes  shows  us  a  considerable 
play  of  mutation  of  the  sonant  g.  Numerically  the  largest  group 
consists  of  the  instances  in  which  an  initial  g  exists  in  Subanu  and  is 
absent  from  the  Bontoc,  as  set  forth  in  this  table : 


Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

galad 
gama 
gapid 
gapoy 
gare 

alad 

araa 

apik 

apuy 

ali 

gatai 

gatop 

golo 

goloan 

gonom 

atoy 

atep 

olo 

olaoan 

inim 

gooay 
gugat 
gutek 
gwasay 

wue 
uad 
utek 

wasay 

The  question  of  the  g-initial  is  discussed  in  the  study  of  the  Subanu 
phonetic  and  need  not  be  taken  up  here.  The  single  instance  in  which 
this  assumption  or  dropping  of  g  affects  the  letter  in  other  than  the 
initial  position  is  to  be  seen  in  gugai-uad.  We  have  four  instances 
in  which  the  g  is  common  to  the  two  languages :  geeg-alogoog,  laga-lago, 
niug-^iyog,  gosa-ogsa.  The  very  simple  mutation  from  sonant  to 
surd,  g-k,  appears  well  established  in  the  following  instances : 


Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

baga 

balin-gawa 

gayo 

poko 

kaaowa 

kayao 

goyamet 
gulungan 

komaot 
kolong 

lagi 
saguing 

lalaki 
saking 

Recessive  mutation,  that  is  upward  in  the  series  and  from  forceful 
toward  weaker  expression,  occurs  twice  in  the  type  g-ng:  boligan- 
faolengan,  sigupan-songyopan.  We  may  be  justified  in  the  interpre- 
tation of  lasag-kalasay  as  a  recessive  mutation  yet  further  continued 
past  the  nasal  as  the  first  of  the  true  consonants  and  clear  over  to  the 
semivowel  proximate  to  the  speech  organ  involved  in  g;  this  explana- 
tion, which  at  this  point  can  be  no  more  than  tentative,  will  need  addi- 
tional data  for  its  determination  We  find  the  more  violent  mutation 
out  of  series,  palatal  to  lingual  in  two  instances,  gabo-tjapo  and  sombag- 
sumjad;  and  palatal  even  to  labial  in  laneg-lanib. 

The  surd  palatal  mute  k  undergoes  little  mutation,  quite  as  we 
should  expect  after  observing  with  what  frequency  the  sonant  comes 
to  rest  upon  it ;  the  community  is  observed  in  these  instances : 


Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

bocbaac 

booc 

cana 

fakfak 

fook 

makan 

gutek 

kanuku 

manoc 

utek 
koko 
monok 

patik 
pilak 

fatek 
bilak 

96 


THE  SUBAJIU. 


In  a  single  case,  cana-mangan,  we  have  recessive  mutation  from 
mute  to  nasal.  In  three  cases  we  find  a  k  in  Bontoc  which  is  absent 
in  Subanu ;  basa-fasaek,  siyu-siko,  tao-takao. 

Passing  now  to  the  Unguals  we  find  no  more  than  one  instance  of  a 
mutation  affecting  the  sibilant.  This  occurs  in  sopingi-iping,  and  we 
are  unable  to  determine  if  it  is  a  Subanu  assumption  or  a  Bontoc  abra- 
sion, except  in  so  far  as  the  Visayan  aping  is  indicative.  The  instances 
where  s  is  common  are  set  forth  in  this  table : 


Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

basa 
buis 

fasaek 
fuys 

posong 
pusu 

poso 
baosig 

sigupan 
sinbaan 

songyopan 
simfan 

gwasay 
lasag 
lusung 
masin 

wasay 
kalasay 
luson 
asin 

sa 

saguing 
salamin 
salapi 

isa 

saking 
salming 
salapi 

sismg 
siyu 
sombag 
sulat  - 

singsing 
siko 
sumfad 
suladak 

minsan 

mamingsan 

sawa 

asawa 

sulu 

siUu 

gosa 

ogsa 

siam 

siam 

We  find  the  sonant  lingual  mute  d  unaltered  in  four  instances: 
di-adi,  galad-alad,  palad-talad,  tolod-itoludko.  In  three  vocables  we 
encounter  the  shght  recessive  mutation  d-t j ;  dalan-tjalan,  dila-tjila, 
and  d-dj  in  dua-djua,  as  to  which  we  note  that  each  is  initial.  In 
gapid-apik  we  meet  a  mutation  out  of  series,  from  Ungual  backward 
to  palatal;  it  is  suggestive  of  the  kappation  of  modem  Polynesian. 

The  surd  Ungual  mute  t  remains  commonly  without  mutation,  as 
shown  in  this  table : 


Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

bato 

gatai 

gatop 

goyamet 

gutek 

bato 

atoy 

atep 

komaot 

utek 

mata 
pat 
patik 
pito 

mata 
ipat 
fatek 
pito 

tao 
tee 
tolo 
toon 

takao 
tae 
tolo 
taaowin 

The  mutation  from  siu-d  to  sonant,  t-d,  occurs  in  three  stems; 
gugat-uad,  matay-idoy,  sulat-suladak. 

In  the  course  of  these  studies  based  upon  extended  research  in  the 
phonetics  of  primitive  speech  I  have  sufficiently  estabUshed  the  fact 
that  when  the  Ups  are  brought  into  use  m,  almost  unalterable,  is  the 
weakest  type  of  expression  and  b-p  the  most  forceful.  While  m  is 
fixed,  positive,  an  unchanging  modulant,  we  find  in  these  languages 
the  greatest  play  of  variety  in  the  consonants  which  depend  for  their 
formation  upon  the  positioning  of  the  Ups. 

The  sonant  labial  mute  b  scarcely  exists  in  the  Bontoc;  even 
that  name  is  uniformly  spelled  Fontoc  by  Dr.  Seidenadel ;  it  appears  in 
no  more  than  two  vocables,  bato-bato  and  bulan-buan,  and  for  the  latter 
we  find  the  alternative  fuan.  In  two  instances  we  find  mutation  from 
sonant  to  surd,  b-p;  baga-poko,  gabo-tjapo.     In  all  other  cases  the 


SUBANU-VISAYAN  FILIATION. 


97 


sonant  mute  passes  to  the  surd  spirant,  b-f,  in  a  class  of  consonant 
which  the  Subanu  lacks. 


Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

baboy 
basa 
boaya 
bocbaac 

fafuy 
fasaek 
fuaya 
fakfak 

boligan 

booc 

buis 

faolengan 

fook 

fuys 

bulan 

sinbaan 

sombag 

fuan 

simfan 

sumfad 

The  mutations  of  the  surd  labial  mute  p  are  very  infrequent. 
Two  vocables  afford  us  the  p-b  mutation  from  surd  to  sonant ;  pilak- 
bilak,  pusu-haosig.  In  the  single  instance  of  patik-fatek  the  mutation 
is  yet  one  step  more  in  recession,  from  surd  mute  to  surd  spirant. 
There  is  but  a  single  case  of  mutation  extra  seriem,  backward  from  lips 
to  tongue,  p-t,  in  palad-talad.  The  instances  where  p  is  common  to 
the  two  languages  are  listed  in  this  table : 


Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

Subanu. 

Bontoc. 

gapid 

apik 

pat 

ipat 

posong 

poso 

gapoy 

apuy 

payung 

payong 

salapi 

salapi 

gatop 

atep 

pili 

pili 

sapulu 

polo 

lipay 

paley 

pito 

pito 

sigupan 

songyopan 

palay 

palay 

pono 

punek 

sopingi 

iping 

panga 

panga 

I  have  presented  this  material  in  the  form  of  the  adjustment  of 
the  Bontoc  Igorot  upon  the  Subanu  base,  and  for  the  reason  that  in  this 
work  the  Subanu  is  the  norm  from  which  we  measure  divergence  in 
cognate  languages.  To  prevent  the  chance  of  error  which  might 
naturally  arise  in  this  manner  of  presentation  it  will  be  necessary  to 
employ  a  few  words  in  the  explanation  of  the  true  fact  in  the  case. 
It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the  Bontoc  mutation  is  any  sort  of  a 
divergence  from  a  Subanu  standard  or  the  Subanu  a  variation  upon  the 
Bontoc  base,  and  the  cases  in  which  the  two  languages  agree  upon  the 
employment  of  a  common  consonant  are  not  at  all  indicative  that  we 
have  established  in  such  concord  a  primeval  stem  of  any  given  vocable. 
There  is  a  tertium  quid  to  which  each  language  must  be  referred  inde- 
pendently. Mutation  variety  as  between  Subanu  and  Bontoc  may  be 
divergent  variation  from  a  primeval  type,  or  one  of  the  languages 
may  preserve  the  primal  type  and  the  other  exhibit  mutation  there- 
from. When  Subanu  and  Bontoc  are  in  accord  it  may  be  that  they 
are  also  in  accord  with  this  third  member  of  the  problem;  it  may  be 
equally  the  case  that  they  accord  in  variation  from  that  third  member. 

The  tertium  quid  is  the  stock  speech  from  which  Subanu  and  Bon- 
toc have  derived  this  common  element  amounting  to  90  items.  It  is 
a  possibility  that  the  Bontoc  Igorot  and  the  Subanu  are  widely  sun- 
dered remnants  of  a  common  migration  wave  of  closely  related  folk. 
This  would  be  difficult  to  establish  in  view  of  the  wide  diversity  of  the 


98  THE  SUBANU. 

vocabularies  in  all  but  this  community  of  90  vocables,  still  more  diffi- 
cult in  view  of  the  essentially  different  method  of  grammatical  treat- 
ment. It  is  far  more  reasonable  to  consider  that  this  community  of 
vocables  is  the  residuum  of  the  draft  made  independently  by  Subanu 
and  Bontoc,  at  some  remote  period  of  time  and  in  some  remote  dis- 
tributing point  of  migration,  upon  the  common  stock  of  archetypal 
Malayan  speech.  That  the  source  language  of  this  community  was 
already  in  possession  of  archetypal  Polynesian  elements  is  made  clear 
by  the  further  and  most  important  fact  that  in  this  community  of  90 
vocables  preserved  at  the  far  north  of  Luzon  and  at  the  far  south  of 
Mindanao,  separated  by  ten  degrees  of  latitude,  no  less  than  55  are 
identifiable  as  in  Polynesian  possession  at  the  present  day.  Much 
of  this  Subanu-Bontoc  community  in  the  possession  of  the  common 
element  of  Malayan  and  Polynesian  is  identifiable  with  the  Proto- 
Samoan  and  not  with  the  Tongafiti  migration  of  the  Polynesians  into 
the  Pacific. 

What  bearing  this  may  have  upon  the  problem  of  the  great  equa- 
torial archipelago  I  leave  contentedly  to  the  students  of  Malayan  Un- 
guistics.  Its  bearing  upon  my  own  theme  of  Polynesian  speech  is  clear. 
In  the  advance  of  the  first  Malayu  migrants  upon  the  primal  Polyne- 
sians settled  in  the  Java  seas  there  was  a  mixing  period  during  which 
the  Malayan  language  was  enriched  by  the  assumption  of  Polynesian 
vocables,  evidence  of  which  admixture  survives  in  some  250  vocables 
which  we  identify  as  common  to  the  two  language  families.  Further- 
more in  this  mixing  period  the  interchange  of  speech  material  was 
almost  wholly  one-sided,  assumption  by  the  Malay  from  the  Poly- 
nesian. This  is  established  by  the  fact  that  there  is  not  a  single  item 
in  this  community  for  which  a  Malayan  source  may  be  exclusively 
proved,  and  in  but  one  doubtful  case  (tinae)  is  there  a  single  suggestion 
that  a  secondary  Malayan  form  is  discoverable  in  the  Polynesian, 
This  mixing  period  was  succeeded  by  an  accession  of  new  Malayan 
strength  as  new  hordes  poured  in  upon  the  archipelago.  In  this  more 
violent  stage  the  Polynesian  ancestors  began  their  first  flight  into  the 
safety  of  the  empty  Pacific,  the  earliest  Malays  either  fled  to  yet  more 
remote  islands,  a  movement  in  which  we  believe  the  Subanu  in  one 
flight  and  the  Bontoc  in  another  to  have  participated;  or  else  they 
remained  at  the  spots  of  their  first  settlement  and  welcomed  their  kins- 
men, thereby  carrying  over  to  the  later  comers  more  or  less  of  the  new 
vocabulary  stock  which  they  had  acquired  and  thus  securing  its  very 
uneven  distribution  throughout  Malaysia  as  now  within  our  study. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
POLYNESIAN  AND  MALAYAN. 

We  are  now  brought  to  that  division  of  the  theme  whose  particular 
interest  I  freely  confess  was  most  largely  operative  in  inducing  me  to 
accept  the  not  inconsiderable  task  of  preparing  this  Subanu  material 
for  publication.  Indeed  it  is  a  great  pleasure  to  be  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  the  introduction  to  scientific  philology  of  a  speech  hitherto 
unrecorded,  to  array  its  vocables  and  the  machinery  of  their  sense- 
differentiation  in  such  order  as  to  facilitate  the  work  of  other  students. 
It  has  been  a  rare  delight  and  I  would  not  seem  to  suggest  anything 
which  might  in  any  way  belittle  the  importance  of  such  work.  Yet 
I  recognized  in  this  employment  the  opportunity  to  make  a  fresh  ap- 
proach upon  the  problem  of  the  Malayo-Polynesian  as  a  speech  family; 
upon  this  base  of  absolutely  new  material  to  recompute  the  particular 
element  upon  which  that  family  has  been  erected;  from  the  Malayan 
side,  as  already  I  have  done  from  the  Polynesian  side,  to  seek  to  render 
the  family  into  its  units. 

I  consider  that  the  unquestioning  acceptance  of  this  Malayo-Poly- 
nesian family  has  operated  to  prevent  inquiry  into  the  most  promising 
source  of  linguistic  knowledge .  I  believe  the  Malayo-Polynesian  family 
to  rest  upon  wholly  false  grounds.  I  know  there  is  not,  there  can  not  be, 
a  family  of  speech  which  shall  include  the  Malayan  with  the  Polynesian. 

Therefore  I  shall  assemble  the  data  which  the  Subanu  and  its 
kindred  Visayan  provide  and  shall  let  them  prove  these  contentions. 
No  material  could  be  better  for  the  purpose,  for  it  is  acknowledged  by 
all  authorities  upon  the  Indonesian  that  the  Philippine  Malay  pre- 
serves the  most  pure  and  uncontaminated  type  of  the  speech  which 
holds  throughout  the  Malay  Sea. 

In  the  whole  of  the  vast  Malayo-Polynesian  domain,  extending  from 
Madagascar  to  the  Sandwich  Islands  in  one  direction,  and  in  another  to  New 
Zealand,  passing  by  the  Sunda  Islands,  a  common  speech  reigns,  of  which  the 
groups  and  subgroups  not  only  belong  to  the  same  class,  but  possess  the  ele- 
ments of  the  same  vocabulary. 

Thus  Andre  Lefevre,  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  chapter  of  his 
" Race  and  Language,"  and  at  the  end  of  the  chapter: 

The  Malay  family  of  languages  is  one  of  the  simplest  and  most  convenient 
of  the  agglutinative  idioms,  as  it  is  the  most  extensive  and  the  most  clearly 
defined ;  it  constitutes  a  perfectly  independent  group,  or  at  least  its  relationship 
to  any  other  has  not  been  discovered. 

99 


100  THE   SUBANU. 

Upon  what  authority  does  the  professor  of  anthropology  at  Paris 
issue  these  statements  so  positively  and  without  qualification?  Let  us 
look  at  similar  pronouncements  by  an  even  greater  master  of  systematic 
philology : 

On  the  islands,  however,  which  lie  off  the  southeastern  part  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Asia,  and  through  most  of  the  groups  and  isolated  islets  that  dot  the 
Pacific,  north  to  Formosa,  east  to  Easter  Island,  south  to  New  Zealand,  and 
west  even  to  Madagascar  on  the  very  border  of  Africa,  are  found  the  scattered 
members  of  a  vast  and  perfectly  well-developed  family,  the  Malay-Polynesian. 

Thus  William  Dwight  Whitney  at  page  241  of  "The  Life  and 
Growth  of  Language,"  and  he  continues: 

The  Malay-Polynesian  languages  are  more  simple  in  regard  to  their  pho- 
netic structure  than  any  others  in  the  world;  hardly  any  of  them  have  more 
than  ten  consonants,  many  only  seven;  and  they  do  not  allow  a  syllable  to 
begin  with  more  than  one  consonant  or  to  close  with  a  consonant. 

In  the  preceding  chapter,  when  discussing  the  Subanu  syllabifica- 
tion, I  have  convicted  Whitney  of  error  in  the  last  item. 

Whence  did  Professor  Whitney  derive  the  information  which 
enabled  him  to  speak  in  such  positive  terms  about  the  Malayo-Poly- 
nesian  family?  I  yield  to  none  in  my  reverence  for  the  great  authority 
of  this  profound  master  of  the  Sanskrit,  and  in  addition  I  have  an  affec- 
tionate sentiment  toward  the  preceptor  who  set  my  feet  upon  these 
ways.  But  what  was  the  source  of  his  information  upon  Malayan, 
Polynesian,  and  Malayo-Polynesian? 

Lef evre  writes  as  one  dealing  with  facts  of  common  notoriety  which 
require  the  citation  of  no  authority.  More  precisely  Whitney  refers 
to  Friedrich  Miiller.  His  opinion  is  in  the  same  form.  I  cite  from 
page  271  of  "Reise  der  osterreichischen  Fregatte  Novara  um  die  Erde: 
linguistischer  Theil:" 

In  einer  Zeit,  welche  jenseits  aller  Geschichte  hegt,  zog  die  helle  malayo- 
polynesische  Race  vom  Westen  her,  wahrscheinlich  dem  siidlichen  Theile  des 
asiatischen  Festlandes  gegen  Osten,  und  Hess  sich  auf  den  Kiisten  der  Inseln 
nieder.  Am  ersten  scheinen  die  Malayen  auf  den  siidlich  gelegenen  grossern 
Inseln,  wie  Sumatra,  Borneo,  Celebes,  aufgetreten  zu  sein,  wo  sie  sich  nieder- 
liessen  und  die  dort  vorgefundene  schwarze  Bevolkerung  theils  vertilgten, 
theils  sich  assimilirten.  Von  da  breiteten  sie  sich  gegen  Norden  iiber  die 
Philippinen,  Marianen  und  die  anderen  angrenzenden  Inseln  aus,  und  gingen 
selbst  nach  Formosa,  hart  an  der  Kiiste  Chinas  hiniiber.  Andererseits  setzten 
sie  auf  ihren  leichten,  hurtigen  Prahu's  iiber  den  grossen  Ocean,  und  siedelten 
sich  auf  den  unbewohnten  zahllosen  Koralleninseln  an,  die  in  Gruppen  hie  und 
da  aus  der  uniibersehbaren  Wasserwiiste  hervorragen.  Auch  die  Doppelinsel 
Neu-Seeland,  die  Krone  unter  den  Inseln  der  Siidsee,  wurde  von  den  kiihnen 
Wanderern  in  Besitz  genommen,  und  wie  es  scheint,  nach  manchen  Kampfen 
mit  den  wilden  Raubthieren  und  Riesenvogeln  bevolkert. 

Here  we  are  coming  closer  to  information  at  first  hand,  for  Dr. 
Miiller  had  seen  the  Polynesians  and  the  Indonesians  with  such  super- 


POLYNESIAN  AND  MAI.AYAN.  101 

ficiality  of  observation  as  comes  to  scientific  voyagers  whose  stay  at 
any  one  spot  is  necessarily  brief.  How  superficial  his  knowledge  is 
the  last  sentence  exhibits,  for  it  is  a  fact  of  zoology  that  New  Zealand 
lacked  beasts  of  prey,  and  it  is  more  than  doubtful  if  the  moa  persisted 
until  the  period  of  the  Polynesian  settlement  of  the  islands;  certainly 
there  is  no  warrant  for  the  assumption  of  the  dinomis  as  a  combative 
fowl.  Despite  his  personal  experiences  on  the  cruise  of  the  Novara, 
Miiller  derives  his  authority  for  the  Malayo-Polynesian  family  from 
Franz  Bopp. 

At  last  we  have  gone  upstream  to  the  source.  The  Malayo- 
Polynesian  family  was  erected  by  Bopp,  "Ueber  die  Verwandschaft 
der  malayisch-polynesischen  Sprachen  mit  den  indisch-europaischen," 
pubHshed  in  1841. 

No  one  may  deny  Franz  Bopp  the  credit  of  establishing  the  science 
of  comparative  philology ;  he  first  brought  into  order  the  study  of  the 
interlacing  languages  of  mankind,  estabUshed  the  greater  groups,  and 
pointed  out  the  method  whereby  the  study  of  speech  could  be  made 
effective.  All  the  authorities  whom  we  have  cited  in  the  introductory 
pages  of  this  chapter  have  been  satisfied  to  rest  upon  the  dicta  of  their 
leader;  to  not  one  has  it  seemed  proper  to  subject  to  further  examina- 
tion the  data  which  he  had  used.  It  is  the  compelling  force  of  a  great 
name  deadening  research. 

Now  it  is  proper  to  attempt  to  resurrect  the  data  which  were 
available  for  Bopp  in  1841.  It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  he  was 
fresh  from  his  triumph  in  elucidating  the  relationship  of  the  various 
Indian,  Persian,  and  European  languages  which  now  we  commonly 
designate  the  Aryan  group .  He  had  established  a  Semitic  family,  which 
later  information  has  considerably  modified.  He  had  given  Africa  the 
Hamitic  family  in  a  speech  arrangement  which  is  now  completely  dis- 
regarded. Carried  away  by  the  zeal  of  completing  his  system,  of 
assorting  all  the  languages  of  mankind  into  famiUes,  he  created  this 
Malayo-Polynesian  family.  We  have  the  right  to  examine  the  material 
upon  which  he  based  this  classification. 

First  and  foremost  in  his  study  was  the  great  work  of  Wilhelm  von 
Humboldt  on  Java,  "Ueber  die  Kawi-Sprache,"  which  was  published 
in  1838.  I  can  find  no  sUghtest  evidence  that  Bopp  went  beyond  the 
material  which  Humboldt  had  amassed  in  this  great  work.  Accord- 
ingly the  authority  for  the  family  which  Bopp  created  must  lie  in  the 
work  of  his  predecessor. 

Let  it  be  understood  that  there  is  here  no  suggestion  that  Humboldt 
is  anything  but  our  best  authority  upon  the  Kawi  speech  in  Java.  His 
study  of  that  ancient  language  is  both  briUiant  and  profound,  his  discus- 
sion in  pursuit  of  his  theme  when  it  carries  him  to  the  modern  Javanese, 
both  in  its  Basakrama  and  its  Basangoko  types,  leaves  nothing  to  be 
desired.     But  when  he  goes  further  afield  and  brings  in  comparative 


102  THE  SUBANU. 

material  we  are  entitled  to  estimate  the  value  of  that  material.  I  can 
do  nothing  better  than  to  quote  from  Edward  Tregear  upon  this  very- 
point  (Maori-Polynesian  Comparative  Dictionary,  page  xiii) : 

In  this  very  voluminous  work  Humboldt  examines  the  vocabularies  and 
grammatical  construction  of  the  Oceanic  languages  and  considers  that  the 
Tagal  of  the  Philippines  is  the  leading  dialect.  His  vocabularies,  however, 
were  of  a  very  imperfect  character,  and  his  deductions  would  have  been  con- 
siderably modified  had  he  possessed  the  information  at  present  at  our  service, 
his  Maori  being  the  Maori  of  Lee  and  Kendall  (1820)  and  his  Tongan,  if 
possible,  still  more  defective  and  iUusory. 

I  have  been  at  pains  to  discover  what  linguistic  information  as  to 
the  languages  of  Polynesia  was  available  to  Humboldt  and  therefore 
through  him  gave  Bopp  the  data  for  the  creation  of  this  family.  A 
very  few  word-Usts  were  buried  in  the  narratives  of  the  great  explorers ; 
even  if  we  assume  that  Humboldt  had  access  to  them  all  the  material 
was  in  very  imperfect  condition  and  by  no  means  trustworthy.  Tregear 
has  characterized  the  "New  Zealand  Grammar  and  Dictionary"  of 
Lee  and  Kendall.  The  Tongan  vocabulary  was  that  of  Mariner's 
"Tonga  Islands,"  published  in  181 8  and  filled  with  errors  which  at  the 
present  day  are  impossible  of  resolution.  The  work  of  Davies  on  the 
language  of  Tahiti  had  been  published  in  1823,  but  its  present  value  is 
that  of  a  curiosity.  In  1837  Chamisso  had  published  his  brief  and 
inaccurate  vocabulary  of  the  Hawaiian,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  it 
affected  Humboldt's  work.  In  these  few  items  we  have  the  sum  of  the 
data,  both  scanty  and  untrustworthy,  on  which  rests  theMalayo- 
Polynesian  family  of  speech. 

I  arraign  this  family  (experience  has  proved  it  a  deadening  collo- 
cation), upon  the  following  grounds: 

1.  That  the  evidence  upon  which  it  is  sought  to  support  it  is 
incompetent,  immaterial,  and  irrelevant. 

2.  That  a  family  of  languages  can  not  be  constituted  of  members 
belonging  to  radically  distinct  orders  of  speech,  and  that  in  this  case 
the  Malayan  is  an  agglutinative  speech  and  the  Polynesian  isolating. 

3.  That  the  use  of  infixes,  characteristic  of  all  the  Malayan  lan- 
guages and  necessary  to  their  use  in  speech,  is  wholly  unknown  to  any 
of  the  Polynesians. 

4.  That  the  Polynesian  is  essentially  a  language  of  open  type  in 
its  present  stage  and  that  a  consistent  effort  has  been  operative  to 
excise  final  consonants  in  stems  where  inferentially  they  existed  in  a 
remote  past;  that  the  Malayan  languages  admit  closed  syllables  and 
that  in  very  many  instances  there  has  been  an  assumption  of  conso- 
nants in  order  to  close  syllables  originally  open. 

5.  That  the  fixed  element  of  the  Polynesian  lies  in  its  vowel 
structure;  that  the  vowels  of  the  Malayan  are  most  uncertain,  and  that 
the  permanent  elements  are  in  the  consonant  skeleton. 


POLYNESIAN  AND  MALAYAN.  103 

From  the  beginning  there  has  been  some  opposition  to  Bopp's 
Malayo-Polynesian  family.  John  Crawfurd,  a  profound  student  of 
the  Malay,  was  the  first  to  raise  his  voice  in  opposition  and  was  treated 
with  a  most  undeserved  contempt  for  his  really  great  powers ;  in  For- 
nander's  words  "he  was  treated  as  an  ethnologic  heretic."  The  only 
successful  opposition  directed  upon  Bopp  dealt  with  quite  another 
division  of  his  Malayo-Polynesian  theory,  that  in  which  he  sought  to 
associate  this  family  with  the  Sanskrit,  a  position  no  longer  held  by  phi- 
lologists. The  only  modern  author  who  has  recurred  to  this  position  is 
Judge  Fornander,  who  sought  to  establish  the  relation  of  the  Polynesians 
with  the  Aryan  folk ;  yet  even  in  so  doing  Fornander  is  sedulous  to  set 
himself  against  his  predecessor's  association  of  Malay  and  Polynesian. 
The  same  stand  of  opposition  is  held  by  authors  so  widely  at  variance 
upon  other  points  of  Polynesian  study  as  Alphonse  de  Quatrefages, 
A.  H.  Keane,  Lesson,  and  Alfred  Russel  Wallace.  Despite  this  very 
respectable  opposition,  our  systematic  philologists  cling  to  Bopp's  im- 
possible family. 

Now  what  has  produced  this  error?  Some  cause  there  must  have 
been  of  sufficient  strength  to  prove  operative  upon  Franz  Bopp  and 
Wilhelm  von  Humboldt  to  lead  them  into  this  position.  Of  their  fol- 
lowers we  need  say  nothing  now  save  that  they  have  one  and  all  followed 
their  leaders,  that  not  one  of  them  has  sought  the  original  material  in 
confirmation  of  the  doctrine  which  they  have  blindly  accepted. 

There  is  a  reason,  and  on  its  face  and  so  far  as  it  goes  a  very  good 
one.  In  every  Malayan  language  there  is  a  certain  number  of  words 
which  either  on  immediate  inspection  or  after  very  slight  dissection  are 
found  to  be  in  use  in  many,  if  not  in  most,  of  the  languages  of  Polynesia. 
For  myself  I  am  willing  to  go  one  step  more,  to  acknowledge  that  the 
words  common  to  the  Malayan  and  the  Polynesian  occur  also  in  several 
languages  of  Melanesia.  Probably  had  Humboldt  known  of  this  fact 
(in  the  complete  absence  of  vocabulary  material  it  was  hidden  from 
him)  Bopp  would  have  included  this  third  member  in  his  family,  just  as 
in  the  present  time  Dr.  MacDonald  has  tried  to  do  in  his  Oceanic  family. 

We  have  followed  one  another  in  accepting  the  results  of  collation 
of  this  common  material.  Most  of  it  will  be  found  conveniently  acces- 
sible in  Mr.  Tregear's  dictionary.  Now  I  have  had  the  opportunity  to 
collate  anew,  and  on  fresh  material,  a  Malayan  language  of  the  purest 
type  and  to  extract  the  words  in  which  I  can  see  or  detect  community 
with  languages  of  Polynesia.  These  words,  with  all  the  comparable 
material  at  my  disposal,  are  here  set  down  in  order  for  individual  exam- 
ination, that  we  may  be  fully  prepared  to  enter  upon  the  exhaustive 
study  of  the  nature  and  source  of  this  community.  In  ordering 
this  material  I  have  shown,  in  the  caption  of  each  item,  the  Proto- 
Samoan  stem  and  the  Subanu  form,  or  in  default  of  the  discovery  of 
of  this  stem  in  the  Subanu  I  have  established  the  comparison  upon  the 


104 


THE   SUBANU. 


Visayan  form.  In  the  former  group  are  tabulated  the  various  dialectic 
forms  in  Polynesian  with  a  statement  of  their  provenience ;  in  the  latter 
group  are  the  Malayan  forms  so  ordered  as  most  conveniently  to 
exhibit  their  alterations  from  the  more  simple  to  the  highly  complex 
type  of  variety.  It  has  not  appeared  advisable  herein  to  exhibit  the 
mutations  of  Polynesian  stems  as  found  in  Melanesia;  that  problem 
is  quite  distinct  from  that  with  which  we  are  here  engaged.  For  the 
convenience  of  such  as  care  to  examine  this  theme  I  have  appended, 
wherever  I  have  collated  this  material,  a  reference  to  the  page  of  The 
Polynesian  Wanderings  where  such  data  have  been  discussed.  I  have, 
however,  included  this  third  and  intervening  element  in  the  discussion 
of  every  such  vocable  as  was  not  included  in  the  scope  of  the  former  work. 

I.  afi  fire:  Subanu  gapoy  id. 


ail 
ahi 


afi 

efi 

afo 

ngafi 

quafi 

goifi 

aif 

yaf 


Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Uvea,  Niue, 

Aniwa,  Sikaiana. 
Tahiti, Mangareva.Marquesas,  Rapa- 

nui,  Hawaii. 
Rarotonga. 


Bima,  Ceram. 

Muna,  Matabello. 

Malagasy. 

Guam. 

Chamorro. 

Guam. 

Gah. 

Ahtiago,  Teor. 


ai 

Siwa,  Brissi. 

hai 

Vaiqueno,  Rotti. 

hahi 

Timor. 

api 

Malay,     Kolon,     Tomohon,     Solor, 

Battak,  Bugis. 

hap! 

Java. 

yap 

Mysol. 

apoi 

Silong,  Champa,  Formosa,  Matu. 

apui 

Kayan,   Madura,    Dayak,   Tagalog, 

Ilocano,  Sideia,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

wha 

Bouton. 

pepi 

Macassar. 

puro 

Bolanghitam. 

The  last  of  these  forms  is  highly  problematical ;  it  is  here  included 
for  the  completion  of  the  record,  but  it  has  no  suggestion  of  association 
with  afi  save  through  the  presence  of  p,  which  occurs  so  commonly  in 
the  secondary  Malayan  stem.  The  Macassar  pepi  is  in  slightly  better 
case,  for  we  may  regard  the  prosthetic  p  as  due  to  attraction  of  the  stem 
consonant,  a  precisely  similar  instance  being  the  prosthetic  h  in  hahi. 
Bouton  wha,  if  associable  with  this  stem,  is  a  mutilated  fragment. 
Three  forms,  aif,  yaf,  and  yap,  exhibit  different  phases  of  inversion, 
a  structural  method  which  we  have  already  discovered  in  the  discus- 
sion of  the  Subanu.  The  remaining  forms  fall  into  accord  through 
the  operation  of  well-estabHshed  laws  of  mutation.  These  mutations 
are  triple  in  their  incidence.  The  stem  consonant  f  varies  in  one  direc- 
tion to  h,  in  the  other  to  p,  even  undergoes  extinction,  variations  of 
frequent  occurrence  in  the  phonetics  of  these  languages.  Prosthesis 
operates  through  four  agents,  h,  ng,  g,  k;  these,  it  will  be  observed, 
run  the  whole  scale  of  palatal  consonants.  The  final  vowel  undergoes 
a  modification  to  what  may  prove  a  diphthong,  a  mutation  which  we 
shall  observe  again  in  the  study  of  this  material  (cf .  4) ;  a  change  such 
as  this  is  wholly  foreign  to  the  spirit  of  the  Polynesian  languages,  where 
the  vowels  are  of  the  stoutest  constancy,  but  we  note  with  interest  the 
occurrence  of  the  converse  in  Niue,  where  we  encounter  several  instances 
in  which  ae  of  the  stem,  essentially  not  diphthongal,  becomes  e.    In 


POLYNESIAN  AND  MALAYAN.  105 

the  Malayan  cognates  i  becomes  ui  and  oi,  and  in  the  vowel  uncer- 
tainty of  these  languages,  the  two  forms  are  different  alphabetically 
rather  than  in  reaUty.  It  will  be  seen  from  an  examination  of  the  maps 
that  this  variant  occurs  almost  distinctly  in  the  eastern  and  older  half 
of  the  Malayan  province,  where  also  prosthesis  occurs. 

Subanu  gapoy  exhibits  the  maximum  of  mutation  away  from  the 
primal  stem,  prosthesis  in  the  same  sense  as  in  Guam,  mutation  of  the 
consonant  from  spirant  to  mute,  alteration  of  the  final  vowel. 

2.  hangi  to  blow:  Visayan  hangin  the  wind.     P.  W.  317. 

angi         Samoa,     Tonga,     Futuna,     Niue, 

Uvea,  Nukuoro,  Maori,  Ala- 

ngareva,  Moriori. 
dhangi    Viti. 
ani  Hawaii,  Marquesas. 


angi 

Bima. 

ange 

Kisa. 

angin 

Malay. 

angina 

Malagasy. 

anging 

Macassar,  Bugis 

Ranging 

Bali. 

hangin   Java,  Tagalog,  Magindano,  Bicol. 

I  am  not  indisposed  to  regard  the  Proto-Samoan  stem  as  hangin, 
basing  this  upon  the  Samoan  form  in  the  objective  aspect  angina  and 
the  Viti  dhangina,  as  to  which  Hazlewood  notes  "an  irregular  passive." 
On  this  assumption  the  Malayan  hangin,  all  in  the  eastern  half  of  the 
province  except  Java,  is  a  constant.  We  have  learned  to  interpret  the 
dh  of  the  Viti  phonetic  as  the  attempt,  an  effort  which  through  force 
overleaps  its  aim,  to  render  the  aspiration  proximate  to  the  lingual 
series,  this  aspiration  having  become  extinct  in  all  other  Polynesian. 
In  this  reading  of  the  early  stem  we  look  upon  hangin  as  a  preservation 
of  the  original  in  Indonesia,  and  the  Bima  and  Kisa  forms  as  having 
undergone  the  same  modification  as  is  the  case  in  the  present  phase  of 
the  Polynesian.  The  other  mutations  entail  no  difficulty,  mutation 
from  n  to  ng  in  the  final  consonant  in  three  instances,  and  of  initial 
h  to  k  in  Bali.  This  may  be  an  accretion  of  the  palatal  mute  after 
the  loss  of  the  aspiration,  that  is  to  say  hanging  may  be  a  secondary 
development  upon  anging;  on  the  other  hand  I  have  estabUshed  for 
the  triple  aspiration  a  portative  value  whereby  mutation  extra  serieni 
may  be  brought  about,  and  this  mutation  from  lingual  aspiration  to 
palatal  mute  is  conceivable  as  effected  by  the  tendency  to  revert  to 
the  palatal,  further  exhibited  in  the  n-ng  mutation.  The  primal  type 
is  best  preserved  in  the  eastern  or  Philippine  subprovince. 

3.  aku  I;  Visayan  ac5  I. 


a'u 

Samoa. 

aku 

Sulu,  Malay. 

au 

Tonga,  Futuna,  Uvea,  Niue,  Raro- 

akui 

Kayan. 

tonga,  Rapanui,  Tahiti,  Marque- 

aho 

Malagasy. 

sas,  Mangareva,  Hawaii. 

yahu 

Kisa. 

From  a  multiplicity  of  terms  employed  in  Indonesia  for  the  first 
personal  pronoun,  many  of  them  mere  forms  of  courtesy,  these  have 
been  selected  as  clearly  belonging  to  the  Polynesian  stem.  There  are 
no  diflBculties  of  mutation,  for  k-h  is  but  a  halfway  post  on  the  Une 
toward  the  extinction  of  k  in  modem  Polynesian.     The  accretion  of  a 


106  THE   SUBANU. 

final  vowel  in  Kayan  is  counterbalanced  by  frontal  accretion  of  the 
semivowel  of  the  same  type  in  Kisa. 

4.  ate  the  Uver;  Subanu  gatai  id.     P.  W.  320. 


ate  Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Niue,  Uvea, 
Fotuna,  Nuguria,  Maori,  Tahiti, 
Rapanui,  Marquesas,  Mangareva, 
Rarotonga. 

ake    Hawaii. 

yate  Viti. 


ate     Pampangas. 

ati      Malay,  Java,  Magindano. 

atai    Matu. 

atay  Visayan,  Tagalog. 

adoy  Bontoc  Igorot. 

hut    Ternati. 

akin  Kisa. 


Here  we  meet  with  no  matters  of  particular  interest  so  far  as 
relates  to  form.  The  original  stem  is  retained  unchanged,  for  the  vowel 
difference  is  negligible,  in  two  languages  of  the  eastern  and  two  of 
the  western  subprovince.  The  assumption  of  an  initial  aspiration  in 
Ternati  is  not  unusual,  the  accretion  of  final  n  in  Kisa  is  frequent,  the 
t-k  mutation  in  the  same  speech  foreshadows  the  great  movement  in 
that  direction  which  has  swept  over  the  Polynesian  area  with  a  force 
not  yet  spent.  The  sense  variety  in  the  application  of  this  stem  is 
most  attractive.  In  the  great  majority  of  instances  its  reference  is  to 
the  liver,  but  it  has  been  applied  not  only  to  other  inner  organs  but  to 
parts  of  the  body  exterior  to  the  trunk  cavity.  Thus  we  find  it  with 
a  modifier  used  of  the  spleen  in  Samoan  atepili.  Without  modifier  it 
is  used  of  the  spleen  (Efate),  of  the  gall  bladder  (Wedau),  of  the  lungs 
(Rapanui),  of  the  chest  in  general  (Solomon  Islands  and  perhaps  Mota), 
of  the  heart  (Java).  What  is  the  common  factor  which  will  admit  of 
such  diverse  applicability?  The  heart  as  known  to  these  amateurs  of 
the  insides  of  their  foes  is  a  hard  body,  the  lungs  soft  to  the  touch. 
This  distinction  is  so  well  comprehended  that  in  many  of  these  lan- 
guages one  word  does  duty  for  the  heart  of  man  and  the  stone  of  fruits. 
The  name  of  the  lungs  is  the  word  which  in  adjective  use  means  light, 
exactly  paralleled  by  oiu"  use  of  the  word  hghts,  an  expression  by  a 
still  further  oddity  now  most  familiar  to  us  in  Quilp's  adjuration,  "  Oh, 
my  Ughts  and  liver!"  Between  these  extremes  the  other  organs  which 
carry  this  name  are  variously  graded  in  density.  It  is  quite  clear,  then, 
that  density  is  not  the  point  in  this  nomenclature.  Another  common 
factor  is  that  of  shape :  every  one  of  these  organs  appears  to  the  sight 
as  nodular,  an  agglomeration  distinct  from  the  softer  organs  among  which 
they  are  exposed  to  view  in  the  crude  processes  of  anatomy  to  which 
the  trunk  is  subjected  by  hungry  savages.  This  sense  is  probably  the 
germ  sense  of  ate,  for  we  find  it  in  the  Samoan  atevae  and  atelima  used 
of  the  bunches  of  muscle  in  leg  and  arm  respectively  when  contracted. 

5.  asu  smoke;  Visayan  aso  id.     P.  W.  286. 


asu 

Samoa,  Nukuoro. 

afu 

Futuna. 

aasu 

Rotuma. 

u 

Hawaii. 

osu 
ahu 

Rotuma. 

Tonga,  Niue,  Uvea. 

as-ap 

Malay. 

ohu 

Nuguria. 

aso 

Tagalog. 

au 

Maori,  Nuguria,  Tahiti, 

Mangareva, 

ashok 

Bontoc  Igorot 

Marquesas,  Rapanui 

Rarotonga. 

etu-na 

Malagasy. 

POLYNESIAN  AND  MALAYAN.  107 

For  such  determinant  value  in  the  matter  of  speech  history  as  it 
may  be  found  to  possess,  we  should  give  particular  note  to  the  Indo- 
nesian affiliates.  The  Visayan  not  only  represents  the  original  stem  of 
the  word,  but  also  is  capable  of  carrying  the  signification  without  need 
of  an  auxiliary;  in  these  two  particulars,  form  and  strength  of  defini- 
tion, it  corresponds  with  the  languages  of  Nuclear  Polynesia.  On  the 
other  hand  the  Malay  retains  the  consonant  of  the  original  stem,  but 
its  signification  is  so  weakened  that  to  as  (smoke)  ' '  vapor ' '  it  has  been 
necessary  to  adjoin  ap  (from  apt,  cf.  item  i)  "fire."  In  the  history 
of  the  word,  asii  from  smoke  has  come  to  signify  any  visible  vapor 
and  therefore  has  to  be  strengthened  to  convey  the  smoke  signification 
as  "fire-vapor;"  this  course  of  devolution  and  auxiliation  reappears  in 
the  languages  of  southeastern  and  generally  distal  Polynesia,  accom- 
panied by  a  weakening  of  the  stem  by  loss  of  its  central  consonant. 
We  thus  find  eastern  Malaysia  in  accord  with  western  Polynesia  upon 
the  older  form  and  the  strong  sense;  western  Malaysia  and  eastern 
Polynesia  upon  the  weak  signification.  The  collocation  is  significant. 
Eastern  Malaysia,  particularly  the  Philippines,  preserves  the  older  type 
of  Malayan  speech ;  western  Polynesia,  the  region  of  Nuclear  Polynesia 
(which,  on  philological  grounds,  I  have  erected  into  a  province),  repre- 
sents the  earlier  or  Proto-Samoan  migration  into  the  Pacific.  In  distal 
Polynesia  we  find  the  stronger  influence  of  the  latter  or  Tongafiti  migra- 
tion, a  junior  type  of  the  speech;  it  is  not  without  moment  that  we 
find  this  in  association  with  the  western  and  later  phase  of  the  Malayan. 
So  far  as  we  are  at  liberty  to  interpret  this  in  terms  of  folk  movement, 
we  read  that  the  first  Malayan  comers  into  the  Indonesian  archipelago 
were  in  contact  with  the  Proto-Samoan  ancestors  of  the  Polynesians; 
that  the  later  Malayans  advanced  from  the  Asiatic  continent  along 
the  Malacca  highway  and  dislodged  their  kinsmen  in  an  easterly  direc- 
tion in  order  to  make  their  own  settlements  in  Sumatra  and  Java,  and 
that  these  newcomers  were  in  contact  with  the  ancestors  of  the  Tonga- 
fiti Polynesians  of  the  junior  migration. 

6.  alimango  a  crab;  Visayan  alimango  a  crab  with  large  claws. 

The  word  is  evidently  composite,  but  in  neither  language  is  it  pos- 
sible to  resolve  it  into  comprehensible  elements.  In  my  study  of  the 
Samoan  it  has  suggested  itself  to  me  that  it  might  be  formed  of  three 
elements,  a-lima-ngo.  Of  these  a  plays  a  part  in  word  formation  which 
I  recognize  dimly,  but  which  I  have  not  yet  been  able  to  reduce  to  full 
comprehension;  it  seems  to  be  a  sign  by  which  a  descriptive  vocable 
(adjectival  in  sense)  is  set  apart  into  noun  use.  In  the  appearance  of 
the  Samoan  crustacean  which  bears  this  name  the  claws  are  prominent, 
and  in  the  Visayan  definition  their  size  is  incorporated  within  the  defi- 
nition; therefore  the  word  lima,  as  hand  or  arm,  might  properly  be 
segregated  in  the  composite.     The  final  element  ngo  should  then  be  an 


108 


THE   SUBANU. 


attributive  in  adjective  sense  descriptive  of  some  appearance  of  the 
claws  of  this  crab;  the  only  meaning  which  might  seem  applicable  is 
derivable  from  Mangarevan  ngongo  "a  conical  hole,"  with  which  we 
may  associate  Hawaiian  no  "a  hole."  The  Samoan  alimango  is  the 
Portunid  Lupea ;  we  are  by  no  means  sure  to  what  extent  the  dotted  and 
pockmarked  appearance  of  this  crab  would  warrant  the  designation 
"pitted  claw"  when  the  marking  is  carried  over  the  whole  carapace, 
but  we  are  no  more  than  at  the  beginning  of  our  understanding  of 
selectivity  of  definitive  characters  as  authorizing  name-creation  by  these 
beginners  of  speech. 

7.  apunga-leveleve  spider;  Visayan  laoalaoa  id.     P.  W.  361. 


apunga-leveleve 

ka-leveleve 

hala-neveneve 

buta-lawalawa 

ka-velevele 

punga-verevere 


Samoa. 

Tonga,  Futuna,  Niue. 
Nukuoro. 
Viti. 
Uvea. 

Mangareva,    Paumotu, 
Mangaia. 


punga-werewere  Maori. 


pua-verevere 
puna-welewele 

puna-vevee 

lawalawa 
kSaowa 


Tahiti. 

Hawaii. 

Marquesas. 


Malay. 
Bontoc  Igorot. 


The  primal  sense  appears  to  be  that  of  the  web,  but  the  passage  to 
the  Webster  is  not  difficult,  therefore  we  find  the  word  indifferently 
applied  to  the  spider.  Our  three  Indonesian  terminals  being  found  in 
agreement  upon  the  form  which  characterizes  Nuclear  Polynesia,  we 
may  argue  that  the  concordant  inversion  which  marks  the  Tongafiti 
use  is  of  later  development  than  the  exit  of  the  Proto-Samoans  from 
the  Malayan  archipelago. 

8.  alelo  tongue;  Subanu  dila  id. 


aleio 

Samoa,    Futur 

la,    Niue, 

Fakaofo, 

rera 

Bima. 

Manahiki, 

Hawaii. 

rilah 

Ratahan. 

arero 

Maori,  Tahiti, 

Paumotu, 

Mangaia, 

lila 

Sanguir,  Bugis. 

Rapanui. 

tela 

Malagasy. 

warerc 

»  Moriori. 

lilah 

Bouton,  Salayer,  Menado. 

aledo 

Sikaiana. 

ledah 

Malay. 

alel 

Rotuma. 

lidah 

Kayan,  Basakrama. 

aeo 

Marquesas. 

ilat 

Java. 

elelo 

Tonga,  Hawaii 

dila 

Bolanghitam,    Sulu,    Tagalog,    IIo- 

erero 

Mangareva. 

cano,  Pampangas,  Visayan. 

lelo 

Hawaii. 

delah 

Baju. 

eo 

Marquesas. 

djila 

Bontoc  Igorot. 

In  the  Polynesian  we  have  no  difficulty  in  picking  out  the  stem  lelo, 
nude  in  Hawaiian  and  Marquesan,  elsewhere  prefaced  by  the  formative 
a,  concerning  which  I  have  already  made  sufficient  note  in  item  6. 
The  presence  of  the  simple  stem  in  Hawaii  and  the  Marquesan  is  not  of 
critical  value,  inasmuch  as  each  has  the  augmented  stem  as  well.  In 
general  we  note  that  this  augment  has  been  acquired  since  contact  with 
the  Indonesians  ceased.  In  the  Indonesian  languages  the  final  vowel 
has  passed  from  o  to  a,  a  mutation  of  no  moment  in  the  vowel  uncer- 
tainty of  that  area.  We  find,  then,  the  first  five  items  sufficiently 
representative  of  the  lelo  stem.  The  remaining  forms  fall  into  two 
groups  according  as  the  initial  or  the  medial  liquid  undergoes  mutation 


POLYNESIAN  AND  MALAYAN.  109 

to  the  mute  of  its  own  series.  The  western  group,  Malay  and  Java, 
appHes  the  mutation  to  the  inner  Uquid  exactly  as  in  Sikaiana.  The 
eastern  group,  geographically  the  Philippines  and  linguistically  the 
earlier  phase  of  the  Malayan,  applies  the  mutation  to  the  initial  liquid. 
As  to  this,  I  have  in  the  foregoing  chapter  mentioned  the  effect  of 
stress  in  pronunciation. 

9.  hala  road;  Subanu  dalan  id. 


hala 

Tonga,  Niue. 

hara 

Nuguria. 

saleh 

Malay. 

sala 

Viti,  Rotuma. 

jalan 

Malay,  Silong. 

ala 

Samoa,  Futuna,  Uvea,  Hawaii,  Nu- 

dalan 

Java,  Ilocano,  Visayan 

kuoro. 

djalan 

Bon  toe  Igorot. 

ara 

Maori,   Tahiti,   Mangaia,    Rapanui, 

daan 

Visayan. 

Mangareva. 

alah 

Malay. 

eara 

Paumotu. 

aleha 

Malagasy. 

aa 

Marquesas. 

In  those  parts  of  Nuclear  Polynesia  less  exposed  to  the  influence 
of  the  Tongafiti  supersession  upon  the  older  community  of  Proto- 
Samoans,  we  find  the  effort  made  to  preserve  the  stem  aspirate,  and  in 
Viti  its  passage  to  the  sibilant.  The  vowel  prefix  in  Paumotu  may 
represent  the  same  effort  to  preserve  the  stem  initial,  for  the  Paumotu 
speech  is  in  some  interesting  particulars  of  the  oldest  type  of  Polynesian. 
In  the  Indonesian  affiliates  we  find  most  strongly  marked  the  mutation 
results  from  this  original  aspirate.  Viti  shows  us  that  it  was  the  aspi- 
ration proximate  to  the  Unguals,  for  the  h-S  mutation  is  clearly  indica- 
tive. So  in  the  Indonesian,  all  the  mutation  takes  place  in  the  lingual 
series,  to  the  sibilant,  the  spirant,  and  the  mute  respectively.  The 
three  Malay  forms,  jalan,  saleh,  alah,  form  a  descending  series  within 
that  language  sufficient  to  render  it  unnecessary  for  us  to  associate  the 
alah  with  the  Tongafiti  migration,  since  the  Polynesian  itself  does  not 
divide  in  migration  streams  upon  this  point. 

10.  hake  up;  Visayan  saca  to  go  up. 


hake     Tonga,  Niue,  Uvea. 
dhake  Viti. 

ake        Futuna,Uvea,Aniwa,Marquesas,Ma- 
ngareva,  Paumotu,  Bukabuka. 


a'e  Samoa. 

ae  Tahiti,  Hawaii. 


daki         Malay. 


From  the  next  preceding  item  we  continue  the  note  upon  the 
lingual  aspiration  and  the  mutation  to  d.  The  h-s  mutation  in  Visa- 
yan is  not  in  accord  with  the  stronger  h-d  mutation  just  seen. 

1 1 .  fafa  to  carry  on  the  back ;  Subanu  baba  to  carry  by  land. 


fafa     Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Niue.  |  

vava     Viti.  I    baba    Subanu. 

The  sense  in  Polynesian  is  particular  after  the  habit  of  those  lan- 
guages; the  Subanu  sense  is  more  broadly  stated,  yet  that  need  not 
miUtate  against  the  identification,  for  the  phonetic  accord  is  quite 
satisfactory.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  word  is  distinctively  Proto- 
Samoan. 


no 

THE  SUBANU. 

12.  fafine  woman;  Visayan  babaye  id.     P.  W.  337. 

fine 

Tonga,  Uvea,  Aniwa,  Fotuna. 

winih 

Java. 

hine 

Maori,  Rapanui. 

maho-wen 

i  Sanguir. 

ahine 

Nukuoro,  Mangareva,  Rapanui. 

pin 

Mysot,  Waigiou. 

hoina 

Rotuma       (metathetic       upon 

bin 

Waigiou. 

ohina) 

bini 

Malay. 

aine 

Mangareva. 

bina 

Ceram. 

fafine 

Samoa,  Tonga,  Fakaofo,  Futuna, 

binei 

Gah. 

Uvea,  Sikaiana,  Efate,  Moiki. 

benaing 

Silong. 

fafini 

Liueniua. 

babineh 

Salibabo. 

feline 

Tonga,  Nukuoro. 

pipina 

Saparua. 

fifine 

Niue. 

pepina 

Ceram. 

vahine 

Tahiti,    Manahiki,    Marquesas, 

bahini 

Madura. 

Paumotu. 

bawine 

Bouton. 

wahine 

Maori,  Hawaii. 

baini 

Salayer 

oahine 

Tongarewa. 

banie 

Macassar. 

vehine 

Marquesas. 

mahina 

Liang,  Morella,  Lariko,  Awaiya 

vaine 

Rarotonga,  Tubuai,  Bukabuka. 

Caimarian,  Ceram. 

veine 

Mangareva. 

mewina 

Teor. 

mafine 

Samoa. 

mainai 

Batumerah. 

mahine 

Tahiti. 

mapin 

Gani. 

mohine 

Paumotu,  Mangareva. 

umbinei 

Cajeli. 

tafine 

Aniwa. 

ihina 

Teluti. 

tahine 

Nuguria. 

gefineh 

Wayapo. 

libun 

Subanu. 

fineh 

Massaratty. 

babai 

Ilocano. 

fina 

Sulu. 

fafayi 

Bontoc  Igorot, 

vina 

Ahtiago. 

vavy 

Malagasy. 

Appropriately  varium  et  in  a  high  degree  semper  mutabile  such  sense 
as  may  subsist  in  this  vocable  struggles  forth  into  the  most  complicated 
expression.  The  Polynesian  discloses  to  us  a  primal  stem  jiw^  existing 
independently  and  in  addition  qualified  by  the  formative  elements  a,  fa, 
ma,  ta  prefixed.  Interpreting  j^w^  as  a  diffuse  attributive  carrying  the 
signification  of  femininity,  we  have  shown  (items  6  and  8)  that  the  use 
of  a  exhibits  in  afine  a  specification  of  noun  use.  In  its  proper  place  in 
this  series  we  shall  find  that  the  ma  prefix  is  of  practically  the  same 
value,  that  mafine  particularizes  the  person  who  is  characterized  by  the 
possession  of  the  quality  which  fine  expresses.  So  with  tafine,  which 
does  not  appreciably  differ  in  signification;  we  do  not  regard  ta  as  a 
mutation  product  of  ma,  against  which  militates  the  difference  in  series, 
but  we  do  find  in  it  a  parallel  and  independent  mechanism  for  the 
expression  of  this  differentiation,  in  which  connection  note  the  paral- 
lelism of  Subanu  mopong  and  Visayan  topong  in  the  vocabulary.  In  the 
Malay  archipelago  we  find  the  remnant  of  the  primal  stem  of  more 
frequent  occurrence  than  in  Polynesia  and  within  that  province  widely 
distributed.  Tho.  fafine  type  in  Malaysia  is  so  closely  interassociated 
that  we  may  distinguish  it  as  a  Celebes  type,  therefore  central  in  respect 
of  the  province.  The  mafine  type  is  similarly  interassociated  east  of 
the  Celebes  form;  we  may  delimit  it  as  a  Ceram  type.  While  Subanu 
lihun  is  widely  apart  from  all  types,  we  must  recognize  in  its  bun  some 
association  with  the  stem  fine.  At  the  end  we  find  a  small  group  very 
difficult  of  inclusion  in  this  fine  series ;  habai  of  Ilocano  and  Visayan 
babaye  are  closely  associated,  and  with  them  must  be  joined  Malagasy 


POIyYNESIAN   AND   MAI^AYAN.  Ill 

vavy.  In  the  utter  absence  of  n  we  may  not  be  positive  in  associating 
these  forms  with  fine;  yet  it  is  possible  that  they  may  be  anomalous 
devolution  products  from  the  Celebes  fafine  type,  and  this  possibility 
is  made  more  probable  by  the  occurrence  oifdjayi  in  the  Igorot.  It  has 
seemed  to  me  that /a  oi  fafine  may  be  associable  with  the  next  ensuing 
item,  for  we  find  in  fa  and  faka  a  sense  of  resemblance  in  addition  to 
the  more  frequent  causative  employment. 

13.  fa,  faka,  formative;  Subanu  po,  poc,  poco  id.     P.  W.  270. 


faka  Futuna,  Tonga,  Paumotu,  Uvea,  Ro- 
tuma. 

fak         Rotuma. 

vaka      Viti. 

whaka  Maori. 

haka  Marquesas,  Paumotu,  Nukuoro, 
Tongarewa,  Rapanui. 

hanga   Rapanui,  Paumotu. 

hoko      Moriori. 

aka        Rarotonga,  Mangareva,  Bukabuka. 

anga      Mangareva. 

fa' a        Samoa. 

faa         Tonga,  Uvea,  Tahiti. 

haa  Tonga,  Nukuoro,  Tahiti,  Marque- 
sas, Hawaii. 

hoo        Hawaii. 


pag  Tagalog,  Bicol,  Visayan. 

poco  Subanu. 

pog  Subanu. 

poc  Subanu. 

maka  Sulu. 

mak  Sulu. 

mag  Tagalog,  Bicol. 


fa  Samoa,  Uvea,  Paumotu. 

va  Viti. 

wha  Maori. 

ha  Tonga,Rapanui, Marquesas,  Hawaii, 

ho  Hawaii. 

a  Rotuma,  Rapanui,   Paumotu,   Ta- 
hiti. 


pa  Visayan,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

paga      Visayan.  po  Subanu. 

Mr.  Tregear  has  frequently  called  upon  me  to  suggest  some  expla- 
nation for  the  hoko  and  ho  forms  of  this  most  largely  utilized  of  all  the 
composition  members  in  Polynesian.  While  I  do  not  incline  to  regard 
the  vowel  mutability  here  in  the  Philippines  as  of  much  diagnostic 
value,  I  think  that  our  Subanu  will  answer  his  query,  which  up  to  this 
discovery  has  wanted  a  satisfactory  reply.  It  will  be  noted  that  the 
Subanu  is  a  secluded  speech  within  the  area  of  the  Malayan  archetype  ; 
the  Moriori  is  an  equally  remote  and  ancient  form  of  the  Polynesian ; 
and  the  Hawaiian  ho,  without  this  knowledge  of  its  source,  I  have 
already  employed  in  proof  of  the  early  settlement  of  those  islands  by 
Proto-Samoans  long  before  the  era  of  the  Tongafiti  migrations.  Pre- 
bendary Codrington  writes  upon  this  formative  prefix  {Melanesian 
Languages,  page  184): 

The  causative  is  almost  universally  va,  alone  or  with  a  second  syllable 
ha,  ga.  The  form  va,  fa,  pa  undoubtedly  appears  to  be  the  original  particle,  to 
which  ka,  ga,  ha  has  been  attached.  This  may  perhaps  be  the  verbal  particle 
ka,  ga,  which  is  used  in  .several  languages. 

I  am  by  no  means  convinced  of  the  justice  of  this  determination. 
The  Polynesian  exhibits  a  complete  devolution  system  faka-fak-f a,  and 
in  the  Philippines  we  now  see  similar  systems,  paga-pag-pa  and  poco- 
poc-po.  In  the  biological  study  of  the  upbuilding  of  the  Polynesian 
I  shall  give  due  weight  to  Codrington 's  suggestion,  but  merely  as  a 
matter  of  the  etymology  of  the  languages  in  their  present  phase  it  is 
quite  clear  that  we  pass  by  abrasion  from  paga  to  pag,  from  poco  to  poc. 


112 


THE   SUBANU. 


Whether  po  is  abraded  from  poc,  and  equally  fa  from  faka,  is  a  matter 
with  which  we  need  not  here  concern  ourselves.  It  remains  that  we 
have  the  two  forms  faka  and  fa  in  substantially  the  same  sense,  but 
faka  is  far  the  more  commonly  in  use. 

14.  fale  house;  Subanu  balay  id. 


fale 

Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Uvea,  Niue, 

Fakaofo. 

bale 

Pampangas. 

fare 

Aniwa,  Sikaiana,  Manahiki,  Tahiti, 

bali 

Sanguir. 

Paumotu. 

balay 

Visayan,  Subanu. 

vale 

Liueniua,  Viti. 

bal-ry 

Menado  (?  balay) 

hale 

Hawaii. 

wale 

Magindano. 

hare 

Rapanui,  Mangareva,  Tongarewa. 

bareh 

Salibabo. 

whare 

Maori. 

bore 

Bolanghitam. 

are 

Rarotonga. 

bahay 

Tagalog. 

fae 

Marquesas. 

faoy 

Bontoc  Igorot. 

hae 

Marquesas. 

It  will  be  observed  that  all  these  affiHations  are  found  in  the 
Celebes  and  Philippine  subprovinces ;  in  western  Indonesia  this  stem 
has  gone  into  disuse  under  the  sweep  of  the  stem  ruma,  which  seems  to 
have  been  in  Proto-Samoan  possession  all  the  way  through  the  Mela- 
nesian  traverse,  but  has  dropped  out,  except  for  its  retention  in  Maori 
in  a  particular  sense. 

15.  fana  to  shoot;  Subanu  pana  a  bow. 

banah         Ceram,  Ahtiago,  Tobo. 

pana  Madura,  Macassar,Sikka,  Mang- 

garai,  Baree,  Gorontalo, 
Bunda.To-Bungku,  Tobelo, 
Magindano,  Tagalog,  Su- 
banu, Visayan. 

panah  Malay,  Karo,  Java,  Sunda,  Bali, 
Dayak,  Salayer,  Sumbawa, 
Sanguir,  Cajeli,Ambon,  Ma- 
gindano, Baju. 

o-pana       Bouton. 

tum-panir  Alfuro. 

papana       Sumba. 

am-panah  Timor. 

panat  Massaratty. 

pala  Gorontalo. 

pdppe         Bugis. 

The  phonetic  variety  is  here  of  the  simplest  type  and  nothing  need 
detain  us  upon  this  score  except  to  observe  the  interesting,  yet  at 
present  isolated,  fact  that  the  most  frequent  Indonesian  type  pana  is 
found  intrusively  in  the  Marquesas  at  the  eastern  verge  of  Polynesian 
migration.  The  whole  vexing  subject  of  the  use  of  the  bow  and  arrow 
in  the  two  island  areas  is  entertainingly  and  exhaustively  discussed  by 
Captain GeorgFriederici,  at  page  1 19  of  his  recent  work  "  Neu-Guinea." 
But  if  the  phonetic  curves  are  particularly  smooth,  the  case  is  apparently 
different  when  we  come  to  examine  the  range  of  sense.  I  have  not 
detailed  this  in  the  individual  identifications  of  affiliates;  it  is  quite 
enough  to  mention  here  that  the  signification  ranges  along  three  items, 
to  shoot,  the  bow,  the  arrow.     This  affords  an  excellent  opportunity, 


fana 

Samoa,   Tonga,   Niue,  Futima, 

Uvea,     Paumotu,     Tahiti, 

Moiki,  Tikopia,  Aniwa. 

fan 

Rotuma. 

vana 

Viti. 

vavana 

Sikaiana. 

pana 

Marquesas. 

whana 

Maori. 

fana 

Bima,  Tiruray,  Kolon. 

fana-yana 

I  Malagasy. 

faan 

Salawati. 

fean 

Mysot. 

fan 

Waigiou. 

fun 

Teor. 

aan 

Mysot. 

bana 

Sikka. 

um-bana 

Simbo. 

POI.YNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN.  113 

all  the  more  because  of  the  absence  of  phonetic  complication  in  the 
series,  to  direct  attention  upon  the  sense-character  of  the  vocables  of 
these  primordial  languages.  We  are  far  below  the  categories  of  the 
parts  of  speech  familiar  to  us  in  the  languages  of  richer  development. 
There  are  but  three  parts  of  primitive  speech;  the  demonstrative, 
expressive  of  individualities  of  place  and  time,  and  out  of  the  place 
designation  grows  the  person  designation ;  the  paradeictic,  an  operative 
class  expressive  of  the  fact  that  a  relation  exists  in  the  sense  of  two 
vocables  with  which  it  is  employed,  the  nature  of  the  relation  being 
as  yet  undistinguished;  the  attributive,  the  great  mass  of  the  vocabu- 
lary, the  name  of  an  object  or  an  action  or  a  state.  It  is  from  the 
attributives  that  selection  is  to  erect  into  separate  categories  the  noun 
and  the  adjective,  the  verb  and  the  adverb;  at  the  stage  of  develop- 
ment at  which  we  find  these  languages  of  Indonesia  and  of  Polynesia 
this  function  diversity  is  just  beginning  to  call  for  discrimination. 
The  verb  and  the  noun  have  not  yet  come  into  independent  being. 
The  sense  of  the  attributive  is  dififuse,  unconditioned,  absolute.  In 
the  case  oi  fana  we  shall  find  no  great  difficulty  in  comprehending  this 
inchoate  phase  of  speech.  The  diffuse  sense  is  that  fana  is  the  name 
of  an  act  of  archery;  it  may  therefore  express  any  one  of  the  details 
which  we  find  it  necessary  to  express  in  three  distinct  forms;  it  does 
express  sufficiently  any  one  of  them,  inasmuch  as  to  the  minds  of  the 
users  of  these  languages  it  expresses  them  all  in  one  unconditioned 
statement.  Thus  it  amply  expresses  the  verbal  sense  which  we  par- 
ticularize by  reason  of  conditions  which  exist  in  our  own  more  highly 
specialized  mentality  and  which  we  have  drilled  our  speech  to  express ; 
it  means  "to  shoot"  without  regard  of  mood  or  tense  or  person  or 
number  or  any  other  of  the  precisions  of  our  speech.  Equally  it  means 
that  which  shoots,  "the  bow."  Equally  it  means  that  which  is  shot, 
"the  arrow."  And  when  I  say  equally,  I  mean  simultaneously  as  well; 
fana  in  itself  carries  without  distinction  the  three  ideas  which  we  find 
it  necessary  to  differentiate  by  "shoot,"  by  "shooter,"  by  "shot," 
differencing  these  three  items  by  the  employment  of  simple  stem,  of 
stem  with  inflection,  of  stem  with  ablaut.  In  the  stage  of  intellectual 
development  to  which  the  Samoans  have  advanced  and  the  need  of 
particularity  has  been  reached,  these  three  ideas  have  been  set  apart 
as  follows:  "to  shoot  "/ana;  "the  bow"  'au-faria  or  stick-shoot;  "the 
arrow"  ii-fana  or  reed-shoot. 

i6.  fanua  land;  Subanu  bonoa  field.     P.  W.  341. 


fanua 

Samoa,  Aniwa,  Fotuna. 

enua 

Mangareva,  Bukabuka, Rarotonga 

hanua 

Rotuma. 

fonua 

Tonga,  Niue. 

vanua 

Viti. 

honua 

Hawaii. 

fenua 

Futuna,    Uvea,    Sikaiana,    Moiki, 

Fakaofo,  Marquesas,  Tahiti. 

banua 

Malay,  Bicol. 

henua 

Nuguria,     Marquesas,     Rapanui, 

banoa 

Visayan. 

Paumotu,  Manahiki. 

wanua 

Bugis. 

whenua  Maori,  Bukabuka. 

benua 

Malay,  Togean. 

114  THE   SUBANU. 

Here  again,  as  in  item  15,  with  a  very  simple  mutation  picture  the 
variety  seems  to  He  most  in  the  sense.  The  Polynesian  shows  a  mag- 
nificent crescendo  series,  from  the  mold  at  one's  feet  (Samoa,  Aniwa, 
Maori,  Tonga,  Nine,  Hawaii)  to  the  land  in  which  one  lives  (Samoa, 
Aniwa,  Fotuna,  Futuna,  Uvea,  Tahiti,  Sikaiana,  Moiki,  Fakaofo,  Efate, 
Marquesas,  Paumotu,  Rapanui,  Manahiki,  Maori,  Bukabuka,  Raro- 
tonga,  Tonga,  Viti,  Rotuma,  Nine,  Hawaii),  upward  to  the  whole  world 
of  many  lands  (Aniwa,  Maori,  Mangareva,  Tonga).  In  Indonesia, 
equally  in  the  intervening  area  of  Melanesia,  the  series  is  diminuendo, 
specific,  minutely  particular ;  in  Polynesia  the  ultimate  sense  of  a  world 
is  built  up  inferentially  as  a  series  of  habitable  lands ;  in  the  Subanu,  a 
Malayan  archetypal  speech,  we  have  no  difficulty  in  seeing  that  the 
world  {alibutan)  is  only  that  which  may  be  seen  by  the  utmost  straining 
of  the  eyes;  it  is  Hmited  by  the  last  stretch  of  vision,  by  the  horizon 
{libot  to  go  around) ;  it  is  of  two  flat  dimensions,  a  circle  in  which  the  ego 
sits  proudly  at  the  intersection  of  all  radii,  as  important  as  a  spider  at 
the  center  of  his  web.  To  the  Subanu  the  world  is  a  thing  of  the  eye,  to 
the  Polynesian  it  is  a  thing  of  the  mind,  an  intellectual  conception  rest- 
ing upon  a  grander  thought  of  the  greatness  of  the  cosmos.  From  the 
general  sense  of  land  the  word  passes  to  the  smaller  conception  of  place 
(Sesake,  Mota,  Fagani,  Nggela,  Laur,  Lambell) ,  to  village  (Sesake,  Mota, 
Kabadi,  Pokau,  Galoma,  Mekeo,  Lambell,  Motu,  Tubetube,  Suau, 
Lamassa,  Rubi,  Saa,  Santo,  Sinaugoro,  Hula,  Keapara,  Bicol,  Visayan), 
down  to  such  a  minute  particular  as  house  (Malo,  Santo,  Togean). 

Divesting  our  minds  of  the  connotations  grouped  about  these 
words  in  our  own  speech,  it  is  not  difficult  to  comprehend  this  down- 
ward series.  His  land,  his  country,  to  the  bare  savage  is  narrowly 
restricted.  This  little  stretch  of  beach  from  which  he  may  launch  his 
canoe,  this  stream  upon  which  he  may  build  his  flimsy  shelter,  this 
small  clear  spot  in  the  jungle  upon  which  he  may  plant  his  food  and 
yet  remain  within  reach  of  the  support  of  his  fellows  by  the  exercise 
of  nimble  legs  or  the  frantic  shout — this  is  all  the  land  of  which  he 
can  say  that  it  is  his  own.  All  else  is  forest;  there  dwell  the  spirits 
which  work  him  evil,  there  roam  the  inland  tribes  more  brutal  and 
more  savage  than  himself,  for  absurdly  there  are  social  degrees  even  at 
this  unsocial  basement  of  society.  Therefore  his  connotation  of  the 
word  land  embraces  no  more  than  the  tiny  acreage  upon  which  he 
lives  in  his  peace  and  his  comfort  in  the  protection  of  his  neighbors; 
land  so  exiguous  is  dignified  when  we  call  it  village.  In  certain  of  these 
communities  the  village  becomes  the  house.  I  can  not  find  that  the 
community  house  develops  from  any  sense  of  greater  convenience  in 
building  or  of  greater  security  when  built;  for  the  savage,  iron-ruled 
by  his  traditions,  is  little  actuated  by  considerations  which  partake  of 
the  nature  of  free  will.  More  probably  it  is  a  case  of  the  dominance 
of  the  religious  tyranny  which  is  ever  strongest  with  the  ignorant ;  the 


POIvYNESIAN   AND   MAIyAYAN. 


116 


omens  are  taken  for  the  whole  community  when  the  first  post  of  the 
home  is  set ;  the  house  is  made  a  community  house  in  order  that  all  the 
folk  may  share  the  good  omen.  It  is  in  the  region  of  the  long  commu- 
nity house  that  we  find  that  the  land  word  has  become  a  house  word. 
Acting  in  the  opposite  direction,  we  find  an  instance  in  which  the  house 
word  {ruma,  cf.  item  14)  has  passed  to  the  village  sense;  this  is  mna  of 
the  Kayans  of  Borneo,  who  use  the  community  house  and  with  whom 
the  only  village  is  the  long  house. 


17.  fatu  stone;  Subanu  bate  id.     P.  W.  344. 


fatu 


Samoa,    Tonga,    Tahiti,    Fakaofo, 
Niue,  Futuna,  Aniwa,  Fotuna, 
Sikaiana,  Manahiki. 
Viti. 

Nuguria,  Nukuoro. 
hathu   Rotutna. 
whatu  Maori. 
haku      Hawaii. 
atu         Mangareva,  Mangaia. 


vatu 
hatu 


batu 


bate 

watu 

wadu 

vato 

fahou 

hatu 


Malay,  Kayan,  Silong,  Macassar, 
Togean,  Ceram,  Rumbia,Meng- 
koka,  Bouton. 

Uocano,  Subanu,  Visayan,  Bontoc 
Igorot. 

Magindano,  Savo,  Maronene,  Kolon. 

Bima. 

Malagasy. 

Satawal. 

Ceram. 


The  two  series  are  concordant  in  phonetics  and  in  sense.  In  sev- 
eral Polynesian  instances  where  we  have  a  second  word  for  stone  and 
where  fatu  has  secondary  significations  (such  as  the  heart  and  the  stone 
of  fruits)  we  see  that  the  primal  signification  is  nominal  not  in  respect 
of  any  given  object,  but  in  reference  to  a  certain  quality  possessed  by 
the  objects  to  which  it  is  applied.  The  common  factor  is  quite  clearly 
dual,  hardness  and  such  size  as  to  lend  itself  to  hand  grip;  just  as  in 
Enghsh,  under  the  generic  "stone,"  we  have  similar  particulars  in 
"pebble"  and  "dornick"  and,  by  an  odd  variety,  the  southern  United 
States  dialectic  use  of  "rock"  in  the  same  sense. 

18.  fetu  star;  Subanu  bitun  id. 


fetu 

Samoa,  Niue,  Fakaofo, 

Sikaiana, 

bituun    Visayan,  Sulu,  Magindano 

Manahiki,  Marquesas,  Tahiti. 

bituin     Tagalog. 

fetuu 

Tonga,  Futuna,  Uvea. 

bittuen  Ilocano. 

fetia 

Tahiti. 

batuin    Pampangas. 

fitou 

Liueniua. 

bituek     Silong. 

fatou 

Aniwa. 

biti           Tami. 

hetu 

Rapanui,  Paumotu,  Marquesas. 

bituy       Menado. 

whetu 

Maori. 

betel        Gani. 

heth 

Rotuma. 

bitang     Alatu. 

hoku 

Hawaii. 

bintang  Malay,  Salayer. 

etu 

Mangareva,  Marquesas. 

lintang  Java. 
teen         Mysot. 

fatui 

Sulu. 

toin          Matabello. 

witun 

Sanguir. 

teSn         Wahai. 

witung 

Bugis. 

tokun      Teor. 

bitun 

Ibanag,  Subanu. 

Here  we  shall  have  to  concern  ourselves  simply  with  the  mutations 
of  the  stem.  In  Polynesia  we  deal  with  a  stem  Jet  mi  {fetu)  subject  in 
general  to  the  mutation  variety  normal  to  the  several  languages  of  that 
family.     In  Tahiti  fetia  affords  us  an  example  of  a  mutation  which  is 


116  THE   SUBANU. 

not  phonetic  but  social;  it  is  best  explained  as  an  adoption  from  the 
Paumotu  fctika  under  the  influence  of  the  word- tabu  known  as  te  pi; 
wholly  anomalous  in  Polynesia  (and  it  must  be  recalled  that  the  Pau- 
motu is  filled  with  intricate  problems  of  speech)  we  find  no  affiliate  of 
fetika  except  bituek  of  vSilong  in  Indonesia.  The  vowel  alteration  to 
fatoH  in  Aniwa  is  paralleled  by  fatui  of  the  Sulu.  The  vowel  change  to 
hokii  in  Hawaiian  occurs  again  in  that  speech  in  to'elau-koolau.  So  far 
as  our  Polynesian  material  extends,  we  have  no  evidence  that  the  stem 
is  other  than  open ;  the  incidence  of  the  accent  upon  the  ultima,  how- 
ever, suggests  a  device  of  some  compensation.  But  in  Indonesia  a 
final  consonant  is  so  common  and  in  general  so  uniform  as  to  preclude 
the  interpretation  of  local  accretion.  In  nineteen  forms  there  are  but 
three  which  lack  a  final  consonant,  of  which  Sulu  and  Menado  retain 
the  second  vowel  characteristic  of  the  Polynesian,  one  station  at  the 
threshold  of  the  Philippines,  the  other  in  the  Celebes  subprovince.  In 
ten  forms  the  final  consonant  is  n  and  in  four  more  it  is  ng,  which  we 
know  to  be  a  most  frequent  mutation  product  of  n.  In  the  Silong 
bituek,  with  which  is  associable  the  Paumotu  fetika,  the  k  may  be 
regarded  as  an  ng  mutation  once  removed.  In  Gani  betol  we  are  at  no 
loss  to  consider  1  as  a  frequent  mutation  product  of  n  upward  in  the 
lingual  series.  We  find  such  an  agreement  upon  final  n  or  recognizable 
n-products  that  I  am  willing  to  propose  fetun  as  the  original  stem  of 
the  word.  In  the  general  absence  of  the  labial  spirants  in  the  languages 
of  Indonesia  we  find  two  instances  in  which  the  initial  f  is  weakened  in 
borrowing  and  passes  vowelward  to  W  in  Sanguir  and  Bugis.  In  eleven 
instances  it  is  strengthened  to  the  ultimate  labial  possibility,  the  mute 
b,  and  these  instances  are  smoothly  distributed  over  the  whole  archi- 
pelago. The  second  consonant  t  remains  unaltered  except  in  the  soli- 
tary instance  of  Teor  toku,  and  this  t-k  mutation,  so  general  in  Poly- 
nesian, may  well  have  begun  to  be  felt  before  the  exit  from  Indonesia; 
mention  of  this  has  been  made  in  item  4.  We  next  direct  attention 
upon  a  special  group  of  three  forms,  making  a  series  by  themselves: 
bitang  is  readily  to  be  established  in  the  Malayan  series;  bintang  follows 
with  the  preface  of  the  mute  by  the  nasal  of  its  proper  series;  lintang 
shows  an  anomalous  mutation  b-1  extra  seriem,  but  the  agreement  with 
bintang  in  other  particulars  is  sufficient  to  place  it  in  the  group.  The 
characteristic  former  vowel  e  but  once  appears  in  Indonesia.  The  a 
which  we  have  found  in  Aniwa  is  also  in  Sulu  and  Pampangas,  both 
Philippine  languages  and  archetypal.  In  twelve  instances  evenly  dis- 
tributed over  the  region  the  vowel  is  i,  and  without  complicating  the 
record  by  citation  of  examples  I  note  that  this  is  the  characteristic 
vowel  throughout  the  Melanesian  traverse.  The  characteristic  latter 
vowel  u  is  well  preserved.  Last  of  all  we  find  a  group  of  interrelated 
forms  in  which  the  stem  has  abraded  its  former  syllable ;  these  are  found 
in  the  Ceram  subprovince. 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN.  117 

19.  fili  to  choose;  Subanu  pili  id. 


fili 

Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Niue,  Uvea, 

pili 

Visayan,  Subanu. 

Fotuna. 

pilih 

Malay. 

whii 

"i  Maori. 

piri 

Formosa. 

iri 

Mangaia. 

fidi 

Malagasy. 

ma-pi  li 

Bontoc  Igorot. 

Except  for  the  Maori  and  Mangaian  I  should  consider  this  stem  as 
of  the  Proto-Samoan  stock.  There  are  instances  in  which  we  admit 
stems  of  this  older  migration  in  the  Maori,  but  Mangaia  is  commonly 
attributed  to  the  distinctively  Tongafiti;  however,  the  stem  is  absent 
from  the  other  Tongafiti  Polynesian. 

20.  fili  enemy;  Subanu  pinilian  the  wicked. 
fili    Samoa,  Tonga,  Niue,  Futuna,  Uvea,     j    pinilian  Visayan,  Subanu. 

This  is  a  most  interesting  case  of  a  purely  Proto-Samoan  stem  dis- 
covered in  the  archetypal  Malayan  region.  In  the  Visayan  we  find  a 
secondary  form  showing  that  after  the  stem  had  been  taken  on  loan  it 
had  been  subjected  to  the  Malayan  regime  in  forming  derivatives;  it 
is  easy  to  discover  the  stem  pili  when  we  set  aside,  in  piinlili'.mt,  the 
infix  and  accompanying  suffix. 

21 .   fohe  paddle;  Visayan  bogsay  id.     P.  W.  429. 

fohe       Tonga,  Niue. 

foe  Samoa,     Tonga,     Futuna,     Uvea, 

Sikaiana. 
foi  Fotuna. 

vodhe    Viti. 
hoe         Maori,  Tahiti,  Marquesas,  Rapanui, 

Mangareva,    Hawaii,    Tonga- 

In  the  absence  of  a  wider  Indonesian  series  this  Visayan  is  included 
for  reference  only,  since  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  it  stems  with  fohe. 
In  that  direction  points  its  bo.  If  next  we  seek  in  g  a  mutation  product 
of  h,  we  find  that  it  would  be  objectionable,  though  not  impossible,  as  a 
mutation  extra  seriem,  for  the  dh  of  Viti  shows  the  stem  h  to  be  aspira- 
tion proximate  to  the  lingual  series.  Assuming  this  mutation,  however, 
we  are  at  a  loss  to  account  for  say.  If  it  were  not  for  g  we  should  see 
the  affiliation  of  bo (g)  say  with  fohe;  the  intrusion  of  the  g  lies  at  present 
beyond  our  comprehension. 


rewa,  Nuguria,  Nukuoro,  Liue- 
niua,     Nukumanu,      Nuguria, 
Tauu. 
ohe        Mangareva. 

bogsay  Visayan. 


22.  funga  fruit;  Subanu  bunga  id.     P.  W.  292. 


funga    Samoa. 
hunga  Nukuoro. 


bunga  Malay,  Subanu. 
bonga   Visayan. 
vuni      Malagasy. 


This  is  an  interesting  Proto-Samoan  vocable  of  narrow  limits.  In 
the  other  languages  of  the  two  oceanic  areas  this  stem  seems  to  have 
been  lost  in  fua,  which  is  probably  of  kin.  It  is  quite  clear  (The  Poly- 
nesian Wanderings,  426)  that  the  latter  was  originally /nan;  recalling 
the  frequency  of  syllable  inversion,  it  is  quite  possible  that  an  original 


118 


THE   SUBANU. 


juan  was  transformed  to  funa  and  thence  in  compensation  to  funga. 
As  an  open  stem  this  would  tend  to  permanence,  while /wan  must  in  the 
course  of  Polynesian  speech-growth  slough  off  its  final  consonant. 

23.  ia  he;  Visayan  sia,  siya  id. 


ia        Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Niue,  Uvea, 

Rotuma,     Fakaofo,     Marquesas, 

iya 

Malay. 

Rapanui,     Tahiti,      Mangareva, 

sia 

Sulu,  Visayan. 

Rarotonga,     Manahiki,     Maori, 

siya 

Tagalog,  Visayan,  Bontoc  Igorot 

Hawaii,  Aniwa. 

hia 

Kayan. 

koya  Viti. 

ya 

Pampangas. 

Here  it  suffices  to  note  the  substantial  identity  of  these  forms. 
This  and  the  other  pronouns  will  better  repay  study  when  grouped  for 
examination  in  relation  to  the  theory  of  evolution  from  position  desig- 
nations which  I  have  advanced  in  a  paper  on  ' '  Root  Reducibility  in 
Polynesian"  (27  American  Journal  of  Philology,  369)  and  which  I  shall 
prosecute  more  exhaustively  in  writing  the  comparative  grammar  of 
this  family  of  isolating  languages. 

ikan  fish;  Subanu,  sora,  seda  id.     P.  W.  350. 


ika 


ackan 

Silong. 

ian 

Lariko,  Wahai,  Gani,  Saparua, 

Ahtiago,Matabello,Cerain. 

iyan 

Liang,  Morella,  Nufor. 

iani 

Batumerah,    Awaiya,    Caima- 

rian. 

iano 

Ceram. 

ein 

Mysot. 

yano 

Teluti. 

jikan 

Borneo. 

nyan 

Tidore. 

guihan 

Chamorro. 

nik 

Uap. 

iwa 

Java. 

ka 

Kar  Nicobar. 

ga 

Central  Nicobar. 

isda 

Sulu,  Visayan. 

24. 

Fakaofo,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Niue, 
Uvea,  Moiki,  Nuguria, 
Sikaiana,  Maori,  Marque- 
sas, Rapanui,  Mangareva, 
Tongarewa,  Mangaia,  Pau- 
motu,  Rarotonga,  Mana- 
hiki, Viti. 

i'a  Samoa,  Rotuma. 

ia  Nukuoro,  Tahiti,  Hawaii. 

ikan  Malay,  Massaratty,  Teor,  Ilo- 

cano,  Wayapo,  Gah,  Rum- 

bia,  Bontoc  Igorot. 
maran-igan  Menado. 
itjan  Maronene. 

ikani  Bouton. 

ikiani  Amblaw. 

The  concord  of  the  Malayan  affiliates  is  so  preponderating  that  we 
can  entertain  no  doubt  that  the  stem  was  originally  closed  with  the 
nasal  n.  That  we  can  not  identify  this  closed  ikan  from  any  of  the 
Polynesian  uses  of  ika  is  susceptible  of  a  simple  explanation.  When  an 
attributive  most  strongly  inclines  toward  what  we  know  as  the  noun 
use,  it  is  not  susceptible  of  modification  by  the  suffixes  used  to  particu- 
larize the  employment  of  the  more  diffuse  attributives ;  it  is  lacking  in 
the  protection  to  the  stem  afforded  by  these  additional  members,  and  a 
final  consonant  drops  off  and  leaves  no  sign.  As  ordered  in  this  table, 
the  Indonesian  affiliates  fall  into  a  readily  comprehensible  series  of 
devolution  forms.  Thisistrueof  all  but  the  last  form.  I  have  included 
isda  in  the  list  in  order  to  complete  the  record,  but  it  is  clearly  a  dis- 
tinct stem.  It  affiliates  readily  with  the  Subanu  scda  by  metathesis  of 
the  former  syllable,  and  seda  is  just  as  distinctly  a  mutation  of  sora. 
I  regard  either  isda  or  seda  as  primal,  but  which  of  these  two  came  first 
we  can  not  discover  until  a  further  series  of  the  stem  is  discovered. 


POLYNESIAN  AND  MALAYAN.  119 


25.  hiku  tail;  Visayan  icog  id 
hiku  Tonga,  Uvea,  Niue,  Marquesas.  ;    siku   Malay. 

iku     Tonga,  Futiina,  Mangaia,  Mangareva, 

Rapanui. 
i'u      Samoa. 
si'u    Samoa. 
hiu     Tahiti,  Hawaii. 


iku     Baree. 
ikur  Malaj-. 
ikun  Buru. 
eko     Kajan. 
ukui  To-Bungku. 
uhi     Malagasy. 


The  identifications  are  satisfactory  except  for  the  Malagasy  uhi; 
this  would  involve  an  inversion  of  syllables  (for  which  we  have  no  war- 
rant) in  an  Indonesian  stem  Jiiu,  of  v/hich  we  find  no  trace.  In  both 
areas  we  encounter  an  interlacing  of  two  stems :  hiku  "the  tail,  to  end,  " 
and  siku  "the  elbow,  any  projecting  angle."  It  is  not  impossible  that 
these  are  particulars  of  one  general  idea  slightly  differentiated  in 
the  form. 

26.  inum  to  drink;  Subanu  guinom  id.     P.  W.  376. 

inu  (m)       Samoa,  Fakaofo,  Tonga,  Nuku- 

oro,   Futuna,   Niue,    Uvea, 

Nuguria,     Maori,    Tahiti, 

Marquesas,  Mangareva,  Fo- 

tima,  Mangaia,  Tongarewa, 

Rarotonga,  Manahiki,  Ro- 

tuma,  Aniwa,  Hawaii. 
unu  (m)      Rapanui,  Sikaiana,  Viti. 
ngunu  (v)  Viti. 


inom 

Visayan. 

ma-Inum 

Bontoc  Igorot. 

minum 

Malay. 

minom 

Pampangas. 

o-minum 

Magindano. 

o-minom 

Tagalog. 

minu-na 

Malagasy. 

nginum 

Java. 

ma-nglnum 

Bontoc  Igorot. 

ma-ngino 

Togean. 

For  some  reason,  which  it  is  quite  impossible  to  determine  in  our 
present  knowledge  of  these  two  language  families,  this  stem  in  each 
area  has  been  subjected  to  violent  perturbation.  In  Polynesia  we  find 
the  two  types  inum  and  unum,  a  vowel  change  somewhat  extensive,  but 
not  by  any  means  unfamiliar.  In  Viti,  alongside  the  Polynesian  unum, 
we  encounter  the  form  ngunuv.  The  possibility  of  an  alternative  stem 
final  in  V  is  confirmed  by  the  presence  of  inuv  in  Nggela  and  nnuv  in 
Mota  along  the  Melanesian  traverse.  The  accretion  of  ng  is  met  with 
in  Java  nginum,  Igorot  ma-nglnum  and  Togean  ma-ngino.  Except  for 
the  last  and  the  Malagasy  form  the  Indonesian  exhibits  the  stem  inum. 
In  the  Visayan  this  appears  without  ornament,  and  the  Subanu  accords 
therewith  except  in  the  particular  of  the  g  frontal  accretion  which  we 
have  found  so  characteristically  applied  to  stems  beginning  with  a  vowel. 
In  five  examples,  three  in  the  Philippines  and  two  in  the  extreme  west 
of  Indonesia,  we  find  the  secondary  stem  minum,  which  has  not  passed 
along  into  Polynesia;  yet  the  Igorot  ma-inum  suggests  that  minum  is 
a  composite  of  inum  with  verb-formative  ma. 

27.  isu  nose;  Subanu  soong  id.     P.  W.  348. 


isu  Samoa,  Futuna,  Fakaofo,  Aniwa, 
Manahiki,  Nuguria,  Fotuna, 
Rotuma. 

ishu     Moiki. 

iu         Rarotonga. 


ihu  Tonga,  Niue,  Uvea,  Maori,  Tahiti, 
Hawaii,  Marquesas,  Mangareva, 
Paumotu,  Rapanui,  Tongarewa, 
Nukuoro. 

udhu  Viti. 


In  my  former  examination  of  the  intricacies  in  which  this  stem  is 
involved  {The  Polynesian  Wanderings,  348)  I  was  led  to  the  erection  of 


nggilung  Minabassa. 
ill  Ambon. 

uru-na      Malagasy. 
kam-uru  Macassar. 
urong        Dayak. 
ninura      Ambon. 
nunu         Ternate. 
ngunu      Halmaheira. 
usnut       Gani. 


120  THE   SUBANU. 

a  primal  stem  su,  which  is  the  only  common  factor  entering  into  the 
several  vocables  there  collated.  This  Subanu  soong  I  regard  as  con- 
firmation of  that  judgment.  From  this  primal  su  various  determinant 
vocables  have  been  formed.  With  a  wider  range  of  Indonesian  mate- 
rial than  was  then  accessible  to  me,  I  may  arrange  the  material  from 
this  family  in  a  provisional  series.  The  key  is  the  mutation  of  the  S, 
weakly  to  the  lingual  Hquid,  strongly  to  its  mute.  Assuming  the  sec- 
ondary vocable  isu,  which  we  find  as  the  most  common  stem  in  Poly- 
nesian, we  now  list  the  mutations. 

iru  Ambon,  Kolon. 

irung  Java. 

idung  Malay. 

Ileng  Bontoc  Igorot. 

hiru  Ambon. 

niru  Allor,  Ceram,  Minabassa. 

nirun  Kei. 

ngirung  Minabassa. 

iri  Ambon. 

ilu  Bima. 

The  Ambon  dialectic  forms  serve  to  Unk  together  widely  variant 

types  in  a  continuity  which  otherwise  would  not  be  discoverable.     The 

recurrence  of  final  ng  (n)  in  so  many  of  these  variant  forms  tends  to 

establish  that  final  consonant  in  Subanu  soong  as  pertaining  to  the 

primal  stem,  on  which  point  refer  to  the  note  under  item  24.     The  chief 

links  in  this  Indonesian  chain  are  found  in  Melanesia,  and  particularly 

in  the  important  region  of  the  north  shore  of  Torres  Strait.     The  four 

entries  at  the  end  of  the  list  are  presented  to  complete  the  record  so  far 

as  it  goes ;  quite  clearly  they  pertain  in  some  fashion  to  the  series,  but 

for  the  present  they  stand  as  somewhat  anomalous. 

28.  kapa  to  flap  the  wings;  Visayan  capacapa  id.     P.  W.  295. 

kapa  Tonga.  Futuna,  Nine,  Uvea,  Manga-  |   kapak  Malay. 

reva,  Mangaia,  Maori,  Nuguria.  pacpac  Tagalog,  Bicol. 

'apa    Samoa.  pak-sa  Kawi. 

apa     Tahiti.  pak-si  Basakrama. 

pa       Fotuna,  Rotuma.  papak  Magindano,  Baliyon. 

kapakapa  Magindano,  Visayan.  j 

It  is  quite  plain  that  we  are  concerned  here  with  two  stems,  or  in 
better  likeUhood  a  primal  stem  with  determinant  accretion.  The 
primal  stem  seems  to  be  pak,  the  derivative  kapak.  In  the  general 
theory  of  the  evolution  of  isolating  vocables  we  should  look  to  find  the 
primal  stem  in  the  possession  of  the  earliest  phase  of  the  speech.  The 
evidence  here  presented  is  not  decisive.  The  pak  stem  is  found  as  far 
to  the  west  as  Java — truly  in  the  ancient  speech,  since  it  is  credited  to 
the  Kawi,  and  to  the  Basakrama,  which  is  frequently  conservative  of 
archaic  forms;  eastward,  in  the  region  of  the  archetype  of  Malayan 
speech,  it  is  found  in  the  Philippines  in  Magindano,  Tagalog,  Bicol, 
and  in  the  immediately  associable  Baliyon  of  the  Borneo  Dayaks. 
Yet  in  composition  with  kau,  "a  projecting  member, "  the  primal  stem 
pak  appears  in  Polynesia  in  these  words  for  "wing"  as  "flap-limb," 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN. 


121 


pahkau  Fotuna,  pakau  Maori  and  Moriori,  pekeheu  Marquesas,  pehau 
Mangareva,  peheu  Tahiti  and  Hawaii.  Rotuma  papau  is  not  exactly 
reconcilable,  but  seems  in  some  way  associated.  Omitting  Fotuna, 
these  are  distinctively  Tongafiti  languages.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
secondary  stem  kapak  is  found  generally  in  Polynesian,  in  the  Malay, 
and  equally  in  the  Visayan  and  Magindano.  It  is  accordingly  mani- 
fest that  pak  and  kapak  were  synchronous  in  the  Proto- Polynesian 
before  the  two  streams  were  divided  at  their  source,  but  that  the  secon- 
dary stem  was  not  considered  necessary  in  the  "wing"  composite  by 
the  ancestors  of  the  Tongafiti.  In  my  earlier  study  of  the  word  I  am 
manifestly  in  error  of  judgment  in  regarding  kapak  as  primitive  and 
pak  as  derivative  by  abrasion  of  the  former  syllable.  It  comports  far 
better  with  a  theory  of  evolution  in  the  languages  of  isolation  to  proceed 
from  the  simpler  form  to  the  more  complex,  from  the  general  and  dififuse 
to  the  specific  and  particular. 

29.  kape  wild  taro;  Subanu  gabe  an  edible  tuber. 

kabe  Tonga.  

kape  Futuna,  Niue,  Mangareva,  Rapanui,       gabe  Subanu. 
Marquesas.  gabi  Visayan. 

*ape  Samoa.  gobe  Subanu. 

ape     Marquesas,  Tahiti. 

This  stem  is  of  peculiar  interest  as  indicative  of  one  of  the  most 
remote  outposts  in  the  Pacific  of  Proto-Samoan  migration.  In  the 
Malayan  archipelago  it  occurs  in  the  most  primitive  region  of  the  lan- 
guage family ;  in  the  Pacific  it  is  found  only  in  Nuclear  Polynesia,  save 
for  its  recurrence  in  all  the  languages  of  the  province  of  Southeastern 
Polynesia  which  I  have  found  it  advisable  to  constitute.  In  that  prov- 
ince this  stem  is  one  of  several  pieces  of  evidence  upon  which  I  have 
been  able  to  estabUsh  the  fact  of  an  early  settlement  by  wanderers  of 
the  early  migration  community. 

30.  kau  tree;  Subanu  cahoy,  gayo  id.      P.W.  353. 


kau 

Futuna,  Niue,  Fakaofo,  Manahiki, 

gai 

Omba,  Arag,  Nggela,  Bugotu,  Gog 

Nugiuia,   Maori,   Rarotonga, 

Tangoan  Santo. 

Tongarewa,  Mangareva,  Pau- 

hai 

Vaturanga,  New  Georgia. 

motu,  Fotuna,  Sikaiana,  Nu- 

ai 

Malekula,  Ulawa,  Bululaha,  Alite, 

kuoro,  Rapanui,  Moiki.Tonga, 

Vitu,  Graget, 

Uvea,  Marquesas,  Viti. 

ta-ngae 

Mota. 

•au 

Samoa. 

gei-ga 

Maewo. 

au 

Hawaii,  Tahiti. 

re-ga 

Lakon,  Lo. 

kao 

Aniwa. 

ta-nkei 

Merlav. 

kou 

Aniwa. 

nge 

Volow,  Motlav,  Norbarbar,  Vuras 

kai 

Viti. 

Mosin,  Pak,  Sasar,  Alo  Teqel 

oi 

Rotuma. 

ge 

Malekula. 

ke 

Umre,  Leng. 

kasu 

Efate. 
Nggao. 

gi 

Tanna. 

gazu 

kau 

Efate,  Sesake,  Epi,  Nguna,  Anei- 

cahoy 

Subanu,  Visayan. 

tyura. 

gayo 

Subanu. 

gau 

Marina. 

kayu 

Malay,  Baju. 

au 

Motu. 

kayao 

Bontoc  Igorot. 

kai 

Aneityum,    Bierian,    Malo,    Epi, 

hazu 

Malagasy. 

Longa,  Lent. 

kai 

Teor. 

gair 

Murray  Island. 

122  THE  SUBANU. 

Because  this  stem,  if  a  single  stem  it  be,  has  been  so  tangled,  I  find 
it  necessary  to  include  the  list  of  Melanesian  types.  Of  these  some, 
in  fact  the  majority,  serve  to  establish  connection  between  types  in 
Polynesia  and  types  in  Melanesia,  which  without  these  intervening 
varieties  would  baffle  inquiry.  Other  Melanesian  forms,  apparently 
wide  of  the  two  greater  speech-family  types,  in  this  array  will  readily  be 
discovered  to  be  successive  devolution  forms  in  somewhat  degrading 
borrowing  by  the  uncouth  savages.  Polynesia  affords  us  the  two  types 
kau  and  kai,  for  we  may  disregard  kou  as  being  a  product  of  vowel  muta- 
tion from  kau  and  oi  as  similarly  related  to  kai.  Melanesia  yields  us 
three  types,  kasu,  kau,  and  kai.  In  the  second  and  third  it  accords  with 
Polynesia,  therefore  we  find  these  types  carried  back  to  the  very  gate- 
ways at  which  Polynesian  migration  emerged  from  Indonesia.  The 
kasu  type  is  easily  identified  with  one  of  the  Indonesian  types,  hazu  and 
its  derivative  cahoy.  The  kai  type  is  found  in  Indonesia,  in  Melanesia 
and  in  Polynesia,  therefore  we  may  regard  it  as  original  Polynesian 
stock  brought  by  the  roving  fleets  as  far  as  Viti  in  Nuclear  Polynesia. 
In  kayu  we  can  see  a  probable  association  with  kau,  the  common  Poly- 
nesia type ;  and  gayo  is  clearly  a  variant  of  kayu.  The  last  difficulty  is 
met  in  the  attempt  to  connect  gayo  with  cahoy.  Inasmuch  as  the  two 
are  met  with  concurrently  in  Subanu,  I  feel  that  we  are  justified  in 
regarding  gayo  as  derivative  from  cahoy,  the  Igorot  kayao  being  an 
intermediate  link.     Thus  the  series  is  complete. 

31.  koe  thou;  Visayan  icao  id. 

koe  Tonga,  Futuna,  Niue,  Rarotonga,  Ma- 

nahiki,  Rapanui,  Paumofti,  Manga- 

reva,   Marquesas,   Maori,  Aniwa, 

Sikaiana. 
'oe   Samoa. 
oe     Tahiti,  Marquesas,  Hawaii,  Fakaofo. 

Ceremony  in  Malayan  life  (the  courtesy  of  the  honorific  phrase  and 
the  humility  of  the  speaker)  has  largely  obliterated  syntax.  In  fact 
parsing  does  not  become  an  obsession  until  distrustful  speakers  begin 
to  lose  confidence  in  the  expressive  character  of  their  speech  and  put 
their  reliance  in  machinery — auxiliary  verbs,  for  instance.  This  cere- 
mony affects  equally,  but  in  opposite  directions,  the  pronouns  of  the 
first  and  second  persons;  I  is  abased,  the  speaker  is  but  a  worm  of  the 
dust,  a  mere  insignificance ;  thou  is  raised  to  the  peak  of  honor ;  lord  is 
but  the  beginning  of  address;  from  tuan  the  Malayans  pass  to  giddy 
heights  of  exaltation.  Therefore  the  list  of  Indonesian  affiliates  of  the 
second  personal  pronoun  is  brief  and  hard  to  come  at.  Yet  the  con- 
nection is  made  clear  by  the  Visayan,  always  noting  that  here  in  the 
Philippines  we  find  the  archetypal  Malayan.  From  icao,  a  secondary 
form  with  the  i  augment  which  in  time  I  shall  establish  as  being  a  per- 
sonal index,  we  may  readily  trace  the  simpler  kau  type.  For  transition 
forms  and  for  the  portage  of  the  type  into  Polynesia  we  shall  need  a 


kau  Baliyon. 

kaaw       Matu. 
icao         Visayan. 
sika         Bontoc  Igorot 
angkau  Malay. 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN. 


123 


collation  of  the  Melanesian  material.  Segregated  according  to  the 
mutation  of  the  primal  consonant  k,  this  falls  into  a  remarkably  com- 
pact and  interesting  table  with  exceedingly  few  lacunae. 


iko              in-iko                in-ik 

Q-iko               n-ik               ik 

ko 

en-ik 

igo              in-igo                   .... 

Q-igo                  

go 

ingo            ig-ingo              in-ing 

g-ingo             n-ing 

ngo 

ni-ingo 

....              ....                in-ek 

n-ek 

,   , 

ni-ek 

....               ....                    .... 

ng-ike              .... 

ke 

in-iko    Maewo,  Merlav,  Mota. 

ni-ingo  Sesake, 

in-ik      Gog. 

in-ing    Volow. 

en-ik     Vanua  Lava. 

g-ingo  Arag. 

n-iko     Maewo. 

n-ing     Volow. 

n-ik       Merlav,  Gog,  Lakon,  Vanua  Lava. 

ngo        Sesake,  Omba. 

ik           Merlav. 

in-ek    Motlav. 

ko          Epi,  Sesake,  Maewo,  Mota. 

ni-ek     Norbarbar. 

in-igo    Santo. 

ng-ike  Lo. 

n-igo     Santo. 

ke          Gog,  Lakon,  Lo. 

go           Santo,  Arag,  Omba,  Maewo. 

ka          Mota. 

ig-ingo  Arag. 

o             Ambrym,  Santo. 

From  this  showing  we  perceive  that  icao  and  the  putative  primal 
form  cao  have  been  carried  into  the  movement  toward  Polynesia,  for 
this  is  the  sole  present  worth  of  Melanesia  to  our  studies,  and  that  they 
have  been  subjected  to  the  same  mutation,  kao  has  become  ko.  At 
present  we  may  regard  this  as  vowel  loss.  This  mutation  is  rare  in  the 
attributives,  yet  not  unknown ;  in  the  demonstratives  it  is  more  com- 
mon. Where  so  much  of  the  primal  stem  is  preserved  we  must  admit 
this  mutation  by  vowel  loss  as  permissible.  Thus  we  are  led  from  icao 
to  iko,  and  this  we  find  in  Nuclear  Polynesia  in  the  strengthened  ko  iko 
of  Viti,  a  language  in  which  we  encounter  much  that  is  archetypal  of 
Polynesian.  Those  students  who  have  examined  my  establishment 
{The  Polynesian  Wanderings,  page  147)  of  two  streams  of  Polynesian 
exit  from  Indonesia,  the  Viti  Stream  by  way  of  Torres  Strait,  the  Samoa 
Stream  by  the  north  coast  of  New  Guinea,  will  have  no  difficulty  in 
recognizing  this  series  as  deposited  along  the  sweep  of  the  southern  or 
Viti  Stream.  For  the  northern  course,  the  Samoa  Stream,  Melanesia 
affords  us  another  type  of  mutation,  which  may  be  set  forth  in  the 
following  tables: 


igoe                     ihoe                        ioe                      io                       0,    ho 

igoo                       

go,  no 

goo 

igoe   Nggela,  Bugotu,  Ngao. 
ihoe  Vaturanga. 
ice     Ulawa,  Wango,  Saa. 
io        Saa. 

igoo  Fagani. 

goo     Fagani. 

go      Fagani,  Nggela,  Bugotu,  Ngao 

no      Savo. 

0         Ulawa,  Wango. 

Here  we  see  a  vowel  mutation  from  kao  to  koe;  preferably  we  have 
the  two  variants  from  some  primal  type  which  we  are  not  yet  able  to 
uncover  in  Indonesia.  The  devolution  leads  us  {go)  both  to  the  ko  type 
of  Viti  and  to  the  koe  type  of  Polynesia  in  general. 


124 


THE   SUBANU. 


32.  kumi  beard,  chin;  Subanu  gumi  beard. 

kumi  Viti,  Maori,  Marquesas,  Mangareva,   I   umi     Tahiti,  Hawaii. 
Paumotu.  I 

If  it  were  not  for  the  presence  of  kumi  in  Viti,  this  would  seem 
assignable  to  the  Tongafiti  migration,  which  is  scarcely  probable.  In 
Tonga,  Uvea,  and  Nine  occurs  the  form  kumu  applied  to  the  chin;  it 
seems  to  bear  some  relation  to  the  foregoing. 

33.  kutu  louse;  Visayan  coto  id.     P.  W.  357. 


kutu 

Tonga,  Futuna,  Uvea,  Fotuna,  Si- 

kuto      Macassar. 

kaiana,  Marquesas,  Rarotonga, 

koto      Wayapo,  Massaratty,  Visayan,  Bon- 

Rapanui,      Nukuoro, 

Niue, 

toe  Igorot. 

Maori,  Viti. 

kota      Sula. 

ngutu 

Paumotu. 

kutim  Ahtiago. 

•utu 

Samoa. 

o-kutu  Bouton. 

utu 

Tahiti,  Marquesas. 

hut        Teor. 

uku 

Hawaii. 

utu        Morella,  Matabello. 
utu-a    Caimarian. 
{ktu-k    Tihu. 

kutu 

Malay,    Java,    Salayer, 

Menado, 

Bolanghitam,    Sangu 

r,    Gani, 

utu-n    Wahai. 

Lariko,  Gah,  Baju. 

uti,  ut  Mysot. 

Here  we  have  a  perfectly  smooth  series  of  affiliates,  the  same  frontal 
abrasion  occurring  in  each  area. 


34.  kana  to  eat;  Subanu  cana,  gaan  id 
kana  (kani)  Viti. 


P.  W.  191. 


kana 
caon 


Subanu. 
Visayan. 


gaan 
ma-kan 
mo-konie 
mangan 


Subanu. 

Malay,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

Togean. 

Bontoc  Igorot. 


This  is  manifestly  a  Proto- Polynesian  stem  carried  down  to  Viti  by 
both  streams  of  Proto-Samoan  migration,  for  we  have  a  full  series  of  its 
occurrence  in  Melanesia.  The  general  Polynesian  stem  is  kai.  Yet  we 
are  not  justified  in  assigning  this  to  the  Tongafiti  migration  solely,  for  we 
find  it  at  four  stations  in  Torres  Strait,  the  exit  of  the  Viti  stream; 
these  are  Sariba  kai,  Suau  and  Mabuiag  ai,  Dobu  e'ai,  and  they  are 
dotted  among  other  stations  where  the  kani  type  obtains.  In  default 
of  Indonesian  instances  of  kai,  I  am  still  unwilling  to  accept  its  produc- 
tion from  kani  by  loss  of  n  in  its  inner  protected  situation.  Still  it  is 
clear  that  kani  and  kai  existed  simultaneously  at  the  period  of  the  first 
Polynesian  flight  out  of  the  Malay  seas. 

35.   lafa  ringworm;  Visayan  labhag  id. 
lafa  Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna. 

From  its  restrictively  Nuclear  Polynesian  provenience  this  vocable 
has  particular  interest  as  tending  to  show  that  the  Proto-Samoans  who 
took  part  in  the  flight  into  Polynesia  were  the  same  folk  as  those  who  in 
some  part  of  the  Indian  archipelago  were  in  contact  with  those  first 
comers  of  the  Malayans  who  later  moved  northeastward  to  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Philippines. 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MAIvAYAN. 


125 


P.  W.  359. 


langit  Visayan,  Subanu,  Sulu,  Tagalog, 
Chamorro,  Kayan,  Magin- 
dano,  Malay,  Java. 

langid     Baliyon. 

langi       Bugi,  Champa,  Macassar. 

lanit-ra  Malagasy. 

janggie  Togean. 

ran  Uap. 


36.  langi  sky;    Subanu  langit  id 

langi        Samoa,  Fakaofo,  Tonga,  Futuna, 

Niue,  Uvea,  Manahiki,  Nuku- 

oro,  Viti,  Rotuma. 
rangi       Maori,  Rarotonga,  Mangareva,  Ra- 

panui,  Paumotu,  Tongarewa, 

Aniwa,  Fotuna. 
lani  Nuguria,  Hawaii. 

rai  Tahiti. 

rang        Efate. 
ani.aki  Marquesas. 

Assuming  the  closed  stem  langit,  and  for  this  we  have  Indonesian 
evidence  of  excellent  quality  and  complete  extent  through  the  province, 
the  final  consonant  had  been  lost  at  the  time  of  Polynesian  exit  from  the 
Malay  Archipelago,  for  in  each  stream  we  find  only  the  open  form  in  the 
Melanesian  traverse  (langi)  or  the  secondary  abrasion  {lang)  to  the 
closed  type. 

37.  lango  a  fly;  Subanu  langau  id.     P.  W.  360. 


iango 

Samoa,    Tonga, 

Futuna, 

Niue, 

lango 

Kayan,     Sanguir,     Pampangas, 

Uvea, 

Viti. 

northeast  Celebes. 

ran  go 

Fotuna,  Maori, 

Rarotonga 

Pau- 

rain  go 

Menado,  Bolanghitam. 

motu. 

langau 

Subanu,  Tagalog,  Malay. 

nango 

Nukuoro. 

lengeau 

Dayak. 

lano 

Nuguria. 

langao 

Visayan. 

nalo 

Hawaii. 

langow 

Baju,  northeast  Celebes. 

rao 

Tahiti. 

lalangou 

North  Borneo. 

lang 

Rotuma. 

langa 

Gorontalo,  Bunda. 

The  only  matter  which  need  engage  our  attention  here  is  the  muta- 
tion of  the  final  vowel.  We  shall  find  other  instances  of  the  0-ao 
variety,  and  it  will  simplify  the  study  to  examine  them  collectively 
after  the  massing  of  the  data  has  been  completed. 

38.  laka  to  step;  Subanu  laang  to  walk. 


laka  Tonga,  Futima,  Niue,  Uvea. 

la'a  Samoa. 

lako  Viti. 


laang  Subanu. 
lacang  Visayan. 
pag-lacat  Visayan. 


The  data  are  insufficient  for  the  determination  of  the  question  sug- 
gested by  the  Subanu-Visayan,  whether  this  is  a  closed  stem  and 
whether  the  final  consonant  is  t  or  ng.  We  find  it  in  Melanesia  in  two 
widely  severed  stations  on  the  Viti  Stream,  Motu  and  Mota.  In  Motu 
we  find  raka  "to  walk."  In  Mota  we  have  a  tangle  of  forms :  laka  "to 
kick  up  the  heels  as  in  dancing,"  lagau  "to  pass,  cross  over,  of  impedi- 
ment rather  than  space,"  lago  "to  step." 

39.  lalo  below;  Visayan  ilalom  id.     P.  W.  213. 


lalo  Samoa,     Tonga,     Futuna,     Niue, 

Uvea,  Hawaii,  Nuguria. 

raro  Maori,  Tahiti,  Rarotonga,  Tonga- 
rewa, Bukabuka,  Mangareva, 


Sikaiana,  Aniwa,  Fotuna,  Nu- 
kuoro, Rapanui. 

ngango  Moiki. 

ao  Marquesas. 


At  the  time  of  my  earlier  study  of  this  vocable  I  lacked  Indonesian 
affiUates,  a  lack  which  is  now  suppHed  most  satisfactorily.  The  Visa- 
yan i-lalom  is  clearly  a  composite  representing  the  modern  Samoan  use 
of  i  lalo  locative  and  'i  lalo  of  terminus  ad  quem.     The  fact  that  it  has  a 


126 


THE   SUBANU. 


nasal  final  may  be  taken  to  shed  light  upon  the  forms  which  we  have 
proposed  in  Melanesia  for  affiliation  with  this  stem.  In  Vaturanga  we 
find  lao,  which  follows  the  regime  of  that  speech  in  dropping  an  inner  1 
and  thus  halfway  approximates  the  denuded  form  ao  of  the  Marquesas. 
The  only  other  provenience  in  Melanesia  is  confined  to  a  group  of 
hitherto  obscure  forms  found  in  the  tiny  Banks  Group,  and  all  inter- 
related. These  are  effectively  lalangai,  lalange,  lang.  It  will  be  seen 
that  all  these  forms  have  a  final  nasal.  Though  it  differs  in  series  from 
the  final  m  of  the  Visayan  the  distant  mutation  m-ng  is  well  supported 
in  another  word  in  the  same  group,  malum-melunglung  {The  Polynesian 
Wanderings,  page  370). 

40.  lano  a  lake;  Subanu  danao  id. 


lano         Samoa. 

ndrano  Viti. 

rano        Rapanui. 

ano  Tonga,  Futuna,  Uvea. 


rano-masina  Malagasy. 
danao  Visayan,  Subanu. 

tjanaom      Bontoc  Igorot. 

This  word  is  Proto-Samoan,  in  Rapanui  an  interesting  article  of  the 

proof  of  migration  to  that  ultimate  islet  by  the  first-comers  into  the 

Pacific.     In  sense  it  implies  fresh  water.     Therefore  it  does  not  surprise 

us  to  find  that  in  usage  probably  Tongafiti  it  interlaces  with  the  slightly 

variant  lanu,  which  signifies  sweet  water  in  general  and  certain  of  the 

particular  uses  to  which  it  may  be  put.     We  find  the  same  in  Indonesia, 

Java  and  Kawi  ranu,  Kawi  danu,  Ilocano  danum,  all  signifying  water 

in  general.     Thus  we  are  led  to  Malay  danau  of  the  ocean,  the  sweet 

water  has  passed  to  the  salt  by  steps  which  have  left  their  record. 

41.  laun  a  leaf;  Subanu  doon  id.     P.  W. 

Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Uvea,  Nu- 


397- 


lau 


guria,  Niue,  Hawaii. 

rau  Viti,  Maori,  Tahiti,  Rarotonga,  Ra- 
panui, Paumotu,  Mangareva, 
Nukuoro,  Fotuna,  Rotuma. 

ndrau   Viti. 

au  Marquesas. 

lou         Tonga. 

rou         Mangareva. 

ou  Marquesas. 

That  the  final  n  pertains  to  the  primal  stem  we  have  abundant 
evidence  in  Indonesia,  confirmation  in  Melanesia  in  Moanus,  Barriai 
and  Malekula  laun  and  Malo  rauna. 


rau         Savu. 

rou         Java. 

laun      Saparua. 

daun     Baliyon,  Baju,  Malay. 

dawun  Malay. 

dahun  Sulu. 

dahon  Visayan. 

doon      Subanu. 


42.  le  no,  not; 

e 

Rapanui. 

eaki 

Rotuma. 

se 

Samoa,  Rotuma. 

le 

Samoa. 

lea'i 

Samoa. 

te 

Maori,    Mangareva,    Rapanui, 

Marquesas. 

sega, 

segai  Viti. 

ohe 

Hawaii. 

ole 

Hawaii. 

ore 

Tahiti. 

kore 

Rapanui,  Paumotu,  Mangareva, 

Marquesas. 

oe 

Marquesas. 

kakore 

Mangareva,  Rapanui,  Paumotu 

Marquesas. 

kakoe 

Marquesas. 

koe 

Rapanui,  Marquesas. 

kare 

Rarotonga,  Mangaia. 

aohe 

Hawaii. 

aole 

Hawaii. 

aore 

Mangaia,  Tahiti. 

aoe 

Marquesas,  Hawaii. 

kahore 

Maori. 

ahore 

Maori. 

hore 

Maori. 

ko 

Rapanui. 

POLYNESIAN  AND  MALAYAN.  127 

It  will  tend  toward  the  simplification  of  this  nexus,  which  seems  the 
more  complicated  as  we  extend  the  view,  if  we  dissect  out  the  negatives 
which  are  found  singly  or  in  combination  in  these  Polynesian  languages 
before  we  advance  upon  other  allied  tongues.  From  the  variety  of  the 
Samoan  le  particular  and  se  indefinite  negatives,  corresponding  in  the 
functional  value  of  the  consonantal  modulant  to  the  weak  demonstra- 
tives (article  value)  le  particular  and  se  indefinite,  we  infer  a  primal  neg- 
ative e.  This  we  find  in  an  unmodulated  condition  in  Rapanui,  and  in 
the  Rotuma  composite  eaki  corresponding  to  Samoan  lea'i  it  again 
appears.  For  the  1  and  the  S  modulants  I  can  discern  no  value  other 
than  that  of  indicating  precision.  In  composition  with  other  elements 
they  recur  in  the  following  forms,  postponing  consideration  of  the  value 
of  the  composition  members :  ohe,  aohe,  ole,  aole,  ore  (oe),  aore  (aoe),  hore, 
ahore  (kahore),  kore  (koe),  kakore  (kakoe),  kare.  The  same  primal  nega- 
tive receives  the  consonantal  modulant  t  in  certain  languages  of  the 
Tongafiti  stock,  te  in  Maori,  Rapanui,  Mangareva,  and  the  Marquesas. 
This  modulant  may  be  regarded  as  the  definite  modulant,  such  as  in  the 
same  migration  group  we  find  in  the  article  te;  at  the  same  time  we  may 
find  reason  to  assign  to  the  t  in  this  composition  a  negative  value  of  its 
own.  Toward  the  latter  interpretation  operates  the  fact  that  in  the 
range  of  Polynesian  te  is  considered  so  strongly  negative  that  it  requires 
no  bolstering  with  other  negative  particles,  which  we  have  just  observed 
to  be  so  extensive  in  the  case  of  se  and  in  an  even  more  highly  marked 
degree  of  le.  The  second  stage  away  from  the  primal  negative  e  shows 
the  preface  of  ko  to  se  and  to  le,  thus  producing  a  typical  kose  which  is 
inferential  from  Hawaiian  ohe,  and  kore.  In  Hawaii  and  Tahiti,  which 
lack  k,  we  find  this  stage  in  ohe,  ole,  ore;  and  in  the  Marquesas,  which 
drops  the  liquid  also,  we  find  no  more  than  oe.  This  preface  syllable 
is  itself  a  negative,  as  we  may  see  from  Rapanui  ko;  the  composite 
is,  therefore,  a  determinant  compound  in  which  two  stems  carrying 
inter  alia  one  signification  in  common  are  compacted  in  order  to  set  the 
meaning  beyond  doubt.  With  kore  we  shall  probably  associate  the 
hore  which  gives  us  a  series  of  three  members  in  Maori.  I  am  unable  to 
discover  ho  elsewhere  in  Polynesia  in  a  negation  use,  and  the  k-h  muta- 
tion, while  it  is  phonetically  possible,  I  can  not  find  in  Polynesian  use. 
A  variant  kare  in  Rarotonga  and  Mangaia  has  pecuhar  interest  because 
we  meet  the  same  form  far  to  the  westward  in  Maewo  kare,  dehortative 
"do  not."  In  the  discussion  of  Melanesian  negatives  I  hope  to  be  able 
to  show  that  ka  in  itself  carries  negative  value.  In  this  place  we  shall 
assume  this  to  be  fact  and  shall  estimate  kare  not  as  a  vocalic  mutant  of 
kore,  for  vocalic  mutation  is  almost  unknown  in  Polynesian,  but  as  a 
le  compound  with  the  negative  preface  ka.  This  same  ka  gives  us  the 
third  stage  of  the  Polynesian  negative,  kose  and  kole  prefaced  by  ka, 
doubly  a  determinant  compound,  "no-no-no,"  which  ought  surely  to  be 
beyond  all  chance  of  miscomprehension.  In  this  third  type  we  have 
from  se  the  Hawaiian  aohe  rising  in  the  loss  of  k  twice,  and  from  le  we 


128  THE   SUBANU. 

have  kakore,  kakoe,  aole,  aore,  aoe.  We  have  aheady  noted  that  Maori 
hore  is  anomalous ;  it  continues  so  through  its  series ;  kahore  is  a  com- 
pound of  this  third  type,  but  ahore  is  beyond  explanation,  since  the 
Maori  is  in  general  tenacious  of  the  k. 

We  shall  now  examine  the  Melanesian  negative,  a  sad  tangle  at 
first  view,  but  I  am  quite  convinced  that  the  following  table  will  sug- 
gest the  way  toward  a  simple  statement. 

(a)  sa  ta  ka-re 

tate 
tat 
taho 

t- 


he 

te 

hete 

tehe 

teo 

ti 
di 


Here  we  have  the  e  negative,  the  a  negative  which  we  have  already 
met  in  kare  and  kakore,  and  in  addition  an  i  negative  which  may  be 
primal  or  may  be  a  mutation  from  e.  The  languages  comprised  in  this 
table  are  as  follows : 


sa       Marina,  Saa,  Bugotu. 

te        Omba,  Mota,  Lakon,  Arag,  Deni 

ta       Motlav,  Volow,  Gog,  Norbarbar. 

tehe  Arag. 

tate   Lo. 

teo     Ngao. 

tat     Lo. 

t-       Motlav. 

taho  Nggela. 

i          Alo  Teqel. 

kare  Maewo. 

si-a    Savo,  Vaturanga. 

e         Pak,  Alo  Teqel. 

ti        Sesake,  Efate,  Merlav. 

he      Omba. 

di        Sesake. 

hete  Omba. 

Of  the  three  Polynesian  negatives  in  the  first  remove  from  primal 
e,  namely  se,  le,  te,  we  find  se  represented  by  sa,  he  and  si;  te  represented 
by  ta,  te,  ti,  and  di;  le  is  found  in  but  the  single  instance  of  ka-re.  In 
the  compound  forms  here  presented  hete,  tehe  and  tate  are  clearly  deter- 
minant compounds  of  the  grateful  double  negative  type ;  tat  comes  from 
tate  by  terminal  abrasion.  In  taho  and  teo  we  readily  segregate  ta  and 
te;  the  residual  ho  and  o  do  not  elsewhere  appear  as  negatives,  but  they 
certainly  suggest  the  ho  of  Maori  ho-re  and  provide  a  primitive  for  the 
modulated  ko  of  Rapanui  and  the  general  secondary  type  ko-re. 

We  next  encounter  a  group  of  composite  negatives  of  the  secondary 
type  which  are  quite  manifestly  associable  inter  se  and  beyond  Mela- 
nesia with  the  lea'i  of  Samoan.  These  will  be  shown  in  order  in  the 
following  table. 

ai  tagai 

gae  tigai 

bwai 
pwai-ke 
hai-ke 

(a)  aga  'iga 

taga 
tagar 
tga 

(i)  tigi 

tig 
teji 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN. 


129 


The  languages  comprised  in  this  table  are  these: 


ai              Wango. 

tagai 

Mota. 

tagar 

Gog. 

gae           Fagani. 

tigai 

Maewo. 

tga 

Motlav. 

bwai        Wango. 

aga 

Pak. 

tigi 

Maewo. 

pwai-ke  Ulawa. 

'iga 

Leon. 

tig 

Maewo. 

hai-ke     Saa. 

taga 

Merlav. 

teji 

Norbarbar. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  preface  members  of  such  composites  as  are 
in  this  Hst  are  variants  of  the  te  type. 

The  Subanu  da  and  di  are  sonant  varieties  of  the  ta  and  ti,  of  which 
we  have  evidence  in  Melanesia,  and  its  daay  is  paralleled  by  tagai. 
Bontoc  Igorot  yields  us  adi. 

43.  like  around;  Subanu  molio  curved. 


liko 
li'o 


Futuna,  Viti. 
Samoa. 


balico  Visayan. 
molio  Subanu. 


This  is  the  least-used  of  a  group  of  three  consimilars,  liko,  niko, 
and  piko,  in  which  we  may  recognize  as  operative  the  effect  of  conso- 
nant modulant  prefaces  upon  a  primal  stem  iko.  The  liko  form  is  found 
at  these  three  stations  in  Nuclear  Polynesia  and  doubly  at  this  single 
Philippine  station ;  relative  to  the  speech  families  in  which  they  occur, 
Nuclear  Polynesia  and  the  Philippines  are  recognized  as  archetypal  and 
representative  of  the  Proto-Samoan.  In  Subanu  we  have  no  difficulty 
in  dissecting  out  the  particle  of  condition  ma,  and  the  ha  of  the  Visayan 
is  a  famihar  variant  of  the  same. 

44.  longo  to  hear;  Visayan  dongog  id.     P.  W.  398. 


longo 

Samoa,  Nukuoro, 
Niue,  Fakaofo 

Futuna,  Uvea, 
Rarotonga. 

langan    Matu. 

rongo 

Viti,  Maori,  Manga 

ia,  Mangareva, 

rungu     Java. 

Paumotu,    Rapanui, 

Aniwa, 

rohona  Malagasy. 

Fotuna. 

rungak   Uap. 

ongo 

Tonga. 

hungu     Chamorro. 

lono 

Hawaii,  Nuguria. 

dongog  Visayan. 

ono 

Marquesas. 

dengek    Bontoc  Igorot. 

oko 

Marquesas. 

dangar    Malay. 

In  Polynesia  we  lack  derivative  forms  which  might  protect  a  final 
consonant  if  this  had  been  a  closed  stem.  The  final  mute  palatal  in 
dongog  and  rungak  I  inchne  to  regard  as  verb -formative  suffix  in  the 
eastern  Malayan;  it  is  suggested  again  only  in  Omba  ronghogosi,  and 
there  obscurely,  for  we  have  no  means  of  determining  if  the  g  is  terminal 
of  the  stem  or  initial  to  the  latter  composition  member.  In  examining 
the  Melanesian  material  we  find  suggestions  of  final  m  in  Vaturanga 
and  of  final  V  in  Vaturanga  and  Kabadi.  In  our  slovenly  American 
orthoepy  it  may  not  be  wholly  unnecessary  to  draw  attention  to  the 
fact  that  the  Malay  recognize  in  langar  full  consonant  value  for  the 
final  r;  this  seems  to  belong  to  the  stem,  at  least  in  one  stage  of  its 
development,  for  it  recurs  in  Lambell,  King,  Duke  of  York,  Baravon, 
Raluana.  Mukawa,  Tavara,  Wedau,  Awalama,  Taupota,  Oiun,  and 
Raqa.  It  will  be  seen  that  these  are  stations  at  the  two  exits  from 
Indonesia,  five  at  the  gateway  through  the  Bismarck  Archipelago,  seven 


130  THE   SUBANU. 

in  Torres  Strait,  therefore  at  points  of  our  earliest  information  of  the 
Samoa  Stream  and  the  Viti  Stream  respectively. 

45.  lua  hole;  Subanu  luang  id. 


lua 
luo 

Samoa,  Futuna,  Hawaii. 
Niue,  Tonga. 

loaka 

Malagasy. 

rua 

Rapanui,    Paumotu,    Mangareva, 

rua 

Malay. 

Tahiti,  Maori,  Mangaia. 

luwang 

Java. 

ua 

Marquesas. 

luang 

Subanu. 

lue 

Mota. 

From  the  Indonesian  evidence  (to  which  we  must  add  the  anomal- 
ous Malay  lubang  and  the  Bontoc  Igorot  kaupan)  we  are  justified  in 
regarding  this  as  a  stem  closed  in  ng  and  the  Malagasy  is  a  normal 
mutation  therefrom. 

46.  ma  conditional  prefix;  Subanu,  Visayan  ma  id. 

This  particle  is  general  throughout  the  three  Oceanic  areas.  It 
undergoes  the  normal  vocalic  mutations ;  it  is  paralleled  by  at  least  two 
similar  particles  {ta  and  pa)  with  differences  in  the  consonantal  modu- 
lant.  I  am  forced  to  postpone  discussion  of  the  variety  in  use  in  this 
matter  to  a  later  period  of  my  researches.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be 
said  that  given  a  signification  of  an  action  or  a  state  in  a  primal  diffuse 
attributive,  when  the  need  arises  for  particularity  the  employment  of 
ma  prefaced  to  the  attributive  stem  conveys  the  sense  that  a  given 
object  exists  in  the  condition  stated  in  the  stem  signification.  Such 
forms  are  in  essence  adjectival  in  their  employment.  We  may  illus- 
trate this  from  the  Samoan  fola  to  spread  out  and  mafola  applied  to  an 
object  which  has  been  extended  and  therefore  is  spread  out;  we  are 
forced  to  employ  passive  forms,  but  no  such  voice  sense  is  yet  within 
the  power  of  these  languages. 

47.  masakit,  makit  sick;  Visayan  saquit  id.     P.  W.  379. 

masaki        Futuna.  mai  Rapanui,  Tahiti,  Hawaii. 

mahaki      Tonga,  Uvea,  Niue,  Maori. 

madhake  Viti. 

maki  Marquesas,  Rapanui,  Mangaia, 

Mangareva,  Paumotu,  Nu- 

guria,  Fotuna. 
ma'l  Samoa. 

The  strong  concord  in  Indonesia  leads  me  to  postulate  a  final  t. 
In  the  masakit  forms  this  is  quite  clear  and  finds  confirmation  in  the 
Melanesian  King  miseit.  In  the  Malayan  we  have  in  one  form  for 
makit  this  final  and  in  the  other  instance  it  does  not  appear ;  testimony 
toward  the  estabHshment  upon  Melanesian  authority  of  the  final  t  is 
derived  from  Baravon  ma^7.  The  masakit  type  is  a  conditional ;  we  find 
the  primitive  sakit  in  Malay,  Visayan,  and  Bontoc  Igorot.  This  is  the 
elder  type;  it  is  Proto-Samoan.  For  the  Tongafiti  makit  we  have  been 
able  to  discover  no  instance  of  a  primitive,  but  analogy  leads  us  to  the 
conclusion  that  this  also  is  a  conditional  ma-akit.  Interpolating  a  term, 
we  may  infer  the  descent  from  sakit  through  hakit  to  akit,  then  prefacing 
akit  with  the  conditional  ma  the  concurrent  vowels  might  coalesce 
through  crasis.     It  will  be  observed  that  now  in  deahng  with  the 


masaquit  Ilocano. 

sakit  Malay,  Visayan,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

makit         Silong. 

maki  Kisa. 


POLYNESIAN  AND  MALAYAN.  131 

Visayan  material  I  express  myself  more  positively  in  support  of  the 
position  which  in  my  earlier  work  seemed  less  clear  and  that  further 
support  appears  in  the  Igorot. 

48.  malemos  to  drown;  Visayan  lomos  id. 


lemohaki 

Tonga. 

maremo 

Rarotonga. 

ndromu 

Viti. 

palemo 

Hawaii. 

emu 

Rapanui. 

paremo 

Tahiti,  Maori 

malemo 

Samoa,  Futima. 

peremo 

Mangareva. 

melemo 

Tonga. 

parego 

Paumotu. 

mamah  Malay. 
mama  Subanu. 
mangaga  Bontoc  Igorot. 


The  final  S  is  found  in  the  Visayan  and  in  normal  mutation  in  the 
Tongan  lemohaki.  We  have  in  Polynesia  three  forms  of  the  simple 
stem,  two  {lomu,  lemo)  in  Nuclear  Polynesia  and  one  {emu)  in  Rapanui, 
as  an  interesting  article  of  the  proof  of  a  settlement  upon  that  remote 
island  of  a  Proto-Samoan  colony;  even  so  recently  as  my  recension  of 
the  dictionary  of  that  speech  this  item  escaped  my  attention  inasmuch 
as  I  had  not  then  the  Visayan  evidence.  The  remaining  forms  in 
Polynesia  are  conditional  with  ma  and  with  a  variant  pa;  pa  is  found 
in  languages  of  the  Tongafiti  settlement,  ma  is  Proto-Samoan,  except 
that  Rarotonga  is  a  Tongafiti  community  but  has  the  conditional  prefix 
of  the  earlier  stock.  In  Paumotu  the  m-g  mutation,  a  shift  across  the 
utmost  nasal  range,  is  not  unknown  in  other  instances. 

49.  mama  to  chew;  Subanu  mama  id.     P.  W.  280. 

mama  Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Niue,  Ra- 
panui, Marquesas,  Manga- 
reva, Hawaii,  Viti. 

manga    Nukuoro. 

maanga  Uvea. 

Except  for  the  mutation  in  Nukuoro  and  Uvea  this  identification  is 
so  complete  as  to  be  featureless.  We  note  the  almost  complete  absence 
of  the  stem  from  the  Melanesian  traverse,  its  only  appearance  being  in 
Aneityum  a-mai.  In  secondary  and  derivative  forms  in  Nuclear  Poly- 
nesia we  encounter  the  form  maga,  which  passes  before  the  superficial 
judgment  as  of  the  common  type  of  verbal  noun  formed  from  stem  ma 
by  the  usual  sufiix  ~ga,  the  secondary  sense  denoting  either  an  act  of 
chewing  or  the  person  who  chews.  If  this  were  the  true  explanation 
of  maga  we  should  find  ourselves  under  the  necessity  of  arguing  that 
in  Nukuoro  and  Uvea  the  verbal  noun,  after  it  had  been  created  pur- 
posely to  express  a  distinction  for  which  the  language  had  felt  a  need, 
sacrificed  that  distinction  and  took  the  place  of  the  primal  verb  from 
which  it  is  derived.  This  runs  contrary  to  the  grammatical  course  of 
the  speech.  The  discovery  in  the  Bontoc  Igorot  of  mangaga  establishes 
the  existence  in  the  earliest  type  of  the  Polynesian  of  a  verb  radical 
manga  and  authorizes  us  in  classifying  the  Nukuoro  and  Uvea  forms 
as  Proto-Samoan.  Elsewhere  in  Nuclear  Polynesia,  in  regions  to  which 
the  later  Tongafiti  swarm  found  readier  access  and  where  its  domina- 
tion was  better  established,  the  abraded  stem  ma  of  that  phase  of  the 
common  tongue  came  into  use  in  its  dupUcated  form.     The  particular 


132 


THE   SUBANU. 


significance  of  the  Igorot,  as  in  many  instances  it  is  the  particular 

significance  of  the  Subanu  itself,  is  that  it  is  an  interior  language  in 

this  region  in  which  we  find  the  archetype  not  only  of  Malayan  speech 

but  of  its  early  accumulations  from  the  Polynesian  ancestors  whom  it 

was  dislodging.     Accordingly,  when  we  are  enabled  to  pass  through  the 

coastal  settlement  of  the  later  Malayan  swarms  in  the  Philippines  and 

may  find  in  the  languages  of  the  earlier  migrants  who  have  been  driven 

back  into  the  mountains  word  forms  identifiable  with  those  which  we 

find  in  Nuclear  Polynesia,  we  are  just  fied  in  establishing  them  as  of 

the  earUest  Polynesian  type. 

50.  manifls  thin;  Subanu  monepes  id.     P.  W.  298. 

manifi       Samoa,  Nukuoro,  Tonga,  Futuna,       nipis  Malay. 

manipis  Visayan. 
monepes  Subanu. 
manifi       Malagasy. 

These  are  all  clear  identification,  all  of  the  conditional  type  except 
that  in  Malay  we  have  the  primitive  stem,  which  reappears  at  Roro  in 
Torres  Strait  in  the  form  nivinivi. 

51.  malino  calm;  Subanu  linao  id. 


Samoa,  Nukuoro,  Tonga,  Futuna, 
Uvea. 
mafinfini  Fotuna. 


malino 

Futuna,  Hawaii. 

malinoa 

Uvea. 

linao 

Subanu,  Visayan 

marino 

Maori,  Rarotonga,  Paumotu. 

alTnoao 

Bontoc  Igorot. 

melino 

Tonga. 

malinao 

Bicol. 

merino 

Mangareva. 

marina 

Malagasy. 

milino 

Niue. 

marne 

Formosa. 

manino 

Samoa,  Tahiti. 

maino 

Motu. 

men  i  no    Marquesas. 

Disregarding  the  simple  varieties  in  the  Polynesian  course  of  the 
vocable  we  establish  a  conditional  type  with  the  primitive  plainly  appa- 
rent in  the  three  Philippine  languages. 

52.  manu  bird,  animal;  Subanu  manoc  bird.     P.  W.  372. 

manu  Samoa,  Tonga,  Tahiti,  Manga- 

reva, Rarotonga,  Mangaia, 
Futuna,  Niue,  Uvea,  Fo- 
tuna, Bukabuka,  Maori, 
Hawaii,  Nuguria,  Rapanui, 
Marquesas,  Paumotu,  Viti, 
Tongarewa. 

manman   Rotuma. 


manuk 
manug 
manok 


manoko 


Malay,  Sulu. 

Chamorro. 

Kayan,  Magindano,  Subanu, 
Visayan,  Matu,  Gah,  Mata- 
bello,  Teor,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

Bolanghitam. 


manik 

Gani. 

monok 

Dayak,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

malok 

Wahai. 

manu 

Savu,   Kisa,   Menado,   Sanguir, 

Sula,    Morella,    Caimarian, 

Baju,     Salibabo,     Togean, 

Bouton. 

mano 

Saparua,  Lariko,  Liang,  Batu- 

merah. 

mani 

Waigiou  Alfuros. 

manue 

Amblaw,  Awaiya. 

manui 

Cajeli. 

manuo 

Teluti. 

manuwan  Ahtiago. 

manuti 

Wayapo. 

The  final  palatal  mute  is  so  widely  estabhshed  athwart  Indonesia 
in  languages  of  varying  type  that  we  must  regard  it  as  proper  to  the 
stem;  in  Melanesia  it  reappears  at  such  distant  stations  as  Carteret 
Harbor  in  New  Ireland  {manuk)  and  Tanna  {manug).  In  Polynesia 
the  word  has  seldom  deviated  far  or  completely  from  the  signification 
of  animals  in  general;  throughout  Indonesia  it  is  particularized  upon 
the  bird  sense,  and  in  Bontoc  Igorot  it  designates  a  chicken  only.  We 
note  as  a  resemblance  Sanskrit  manukh,  manush  a  living  creature. 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN. 


133 


53.  masima  salt;  Subanu  masin  id. 


masima   Samoa,  Tonga,  Niue,  Uvea,  Viti, 

Duke  of  York. 
te-mosi     Rotuma. 


rano-masina 

Malagasy. 

asin 

Visayan,    Subanu,    Bontoc 

Igorot. 

asing 

Sanguir. 

fau-asina 

Malagasy. 

masin       Malay,  Subanu,  Visayan. 

This  is  a  remarkably  interesting  vocable.  In  the  Pacific  it  occurs 
only  in  Nuclear  Polynesia  and  is  therefore  properly  to  be  assigned  to 
the  Proto-Samoan  migration.  Just  at  the  gateway  to  the  Pacific  we 
find  it  at  the  Duke  of  York,  a  position  sufficient  to  establish  it  in  the 
Samoa  Stream.  Therefore  the  note  in  Pratt's  Samoan  Dictionary 
"from  Fiji"  is  inaccurate.  In  Polynesia  the  stem  consonant  is  m. 
In  Indonesia,  however,  the  stem  consonant  is  n.  Regarded  as  pho- 
netic mutation,  this  variety  is  well  established.  Furthermore,  our 
Indonesian  affiliates  disclose  the  existence  of  the  types  asin  and  masin; 
in  fact  they  exist  concurrently  in  Subanu  and  Visayan.  We  therefore 
infer  with  whole  propriety  asin  to  be  primal,  masin  conditional,  and 
that  a  crasis  ma-asin  has  taken  place  is  inferential  from  the  vowel 
quahty  in  Samoan  masima.  We  are  now  brought  so  close  to  another 
group  of  forms  signifying  salt,  specifically  salt  water,  thence  the  sea, 
that  we  are  justified  at  least  in  noting  their  presence.  One  small  link 
would  establish  the  chain,  namely,  the  discovery  after  asin  of  asi  in  a 
salt  sense.  As  meaning  salt  water  and  sea  we  find  this  asi  in  Ulawa, 
Wango,  Fagani,  Saa,  Ahte,  Bululaha,  all  determining  stations  in  the 
Solomon  Islands  upon  the  Samoa  Stream.  As  a  conditional  derivative 
of  asi,  noting  that  we  have  already  observed  the  parallelism  of  ma  and 
ta,  we  have  tasi  in  the  same  sense  with  tas,  tahi,  tai  in  series,  which 
brings  us  to  the  general  Polynesian  tai  of  the  sea  and,  in  the  Tongafiti 
languages,  of  salt  as  well,  on  which  see  The  Polynesian  Wanderings, 
page  418. 

54.  mata  eye,  face;  Subanu  mata  eye,  mesh,  bud.     P.  W.  380. 

mata  Polynesia  ubique  (except  as  fol- 

low) in  the  sense  of  eye, 
face,  point,  edge,  mesh, 
source,  any  small  object,  to 
see. 

maka  Hawaii. 

mafa,  maf  Rotuma. 


mata 


matsha 
matada 


Visayan,  Bontoc  Igorot,  Kayan, 
Sulu,  Savu,  Ilocano,  Taga- 
log,  Pampangas,  Baju,  Bou- 
ton,  Sanguir,  Liang,  Wahai, 
Togean,  Salayer,  Menado, 
Bolanghitam,  Alorella,  La- 
riko,  Saparua,  Caimarian, 
Malay,  Macassar,  Awaij'a, 
Ceram. 

Central  Nicobar. 

Matabello. 


matat 

Silong. 

matara 

Ahtiago,  Alfuros. 

matalalin 

Wahai. 

matanina 

Gah. 

matacolo 

Teluti. 

matava 

Batumerah. 

match 

Baliyon. 

matan 

Ahtiago. 

maten 

Dayak. 

matin 

Teor. 

mat 

Kar  Nicobar. 

maa 

Ceram. 

makan 

Kisa. 

mut 

My  sot. 

mucha 

Tagalog. 

muka 

Java. 

muguing 

Ilocano. 

mua 

Madura. 

maso 

Mn.lagasy. 

The  complete  concord  of  the  Polynesian  is  strangely  offset  by  the 
variety  in  Indonesia.  There  is  quite  as  much  variety  in  Melanesia  also, 
but  in  this  place  it  is  not  necessary  to  include  that  material.     In  the 


134  THE   SUBANU. 

Malayan  section  I  have  aimed  to  order  the  material  in  the  progress  of 
variation,  principally  with  respect  of  the  final  syllable  or  consonant. 
The  agreement  is  so  overwhelming  in  favor  of  mata  that  we  need  have 
no  hesitation  in  postulating  that  open  stem  as  primal.  The  residual 
forms,  each  concurring  in  but  a  single  speech  or  at  most  in  but  two  or 
three,  will  fall  into  the  two  classes  of  suffixed  composition  members  and 
closing  consonants  added  in  conformity  with  the  regime  of  the  several 
dialects. 

55.  mate  to  die;  Subanu  matay  id.     P.  W.  373. 


mate           Samoa,  Tonga,  Fakaofo,  Futuna, 

make 

Hawaii. 

Niue,  Uvea,  Maori,  Tahiti, 
Rarotonga,  Rapanui,  Mar- 

mate 

Macassar. 

quesas,    Mangareva,    Pau- 

mati 

Malay. 

motu,  Manahiki,  Bukabuka, 

maty 

Malagasy. 

Tongarewa,  Nukuoro. 

matay 

Magindano,  Subanu,  Visayan 

u-mate       Nuguria. 

patay 

Visayan,  Java. 

ko-mate     Aniwa. 

maki 

Kisa. 

kono-mate  Fotuna. 

matei 

Kayan. 

Strange  to  say,  this  word  in  all  its  recorded  occurrences  must  be  a 
conditional,  for  that  is  the  only  basis  upon  which  we  can  comprehend 
the  form  patay  which  exists  in  Java  and  is  found  in  Visayan  simultane- 
ous with  matay.  We  should  then  postulate  a  primal  ati,  recognizing 
the  considerable  predominance  in  Indonesia  of  forms  in  i;  this  might 
then  serve  to  account  for  the  oti  of  Samoan.  In  that  language  mate 
and  oti  are  synonyma  relative  to  the  fact,  but,  relative  to  the  subject, 
mate  is  employed  of  the  beast,  oti  of  the  man.  In  my  former  notes  upon 
these  two  words  {The  Polynesian  Languages,  pages  274,  374)  I  was 
forced,  in  the  lack  of  this  fuller  information,  to  assign  to  the  courtesy 
speech  the  use  of  oti  as  death.  It  will  be  far  simpler  to  consider  it  as 
probably  a  primal,  and  the  discovery  of  ate  or  ati  in  Indonesia  will  serve 
to  establish  this  view  beyond  peradventure. 

Since  the  writing  of  this  note  my  collation  of  the  Bontoc  Igorot 
in  Seidenadel's  vocabulary  has  disclosed  in  the  noun  signifying  death 
the  primitive  idoy  and  variants  ttoy,  eddy,  udoy.  Thus,  having  reached 
a  hypothetical  primitive  by  deduction,  it  is  interesting  to  find  that 
access  to  additional  data  brings  confirmation. 

56.  mati-kuku  nail,  claw;  Subanu  kanuku  id. 


kuku  Viti. 

mati-kuku  Mangareva,  Futuna,  Maori. 
mai-kuku  Maori,  Paumotu,  Rapanui,  Mar- 
quesas. 
beji-kuku  Tonga. 
pasi-kuku  Uvea, 
mati-'u'u   Samoa. 


mai-uu       Tahiti,  Marquesas,  Hawaii. 


kuku  Malay,  Savu,  Pampangas. 

cuco  Tagalog. 

coco  Visayan. 

koko  Bontoc  Igorot. 


In  Polynesia  we  encounter  the  primal  stem  only  in  Viti ;  elsewhere 
it  is  involved  with  a  formative  agent,  principally  mati  or  mai.  This 
occurrence  of  kuku  in  Viti  should  serve  to  set  aside  Hazlewood's  note 
that  it  derives  from  kuku  the  name  of  a  small  shell;  this  shell  name 
extends  beyond  Viti  into  Polynesia  in  its  own  independent  existence. 
The  primal  is  well  established  in  Indonesia,  for  the  vowel  mutation  is 
there  negligible,  particularly  the  interchange  of  o  and  u. 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN. 


135 


57.  matou  we  (exclusive);  Visayan  came  id. 


ma-tou 

Samoa,   Marquesas,   Tahiti,   Ra- 

kamai 

Araga. 

panui,     Mangareva,     Raro- 

gamai 

Omba. 

tonga,  Manahiki,  Niue,  Uvea, 

kamam 

Merlav,  Mota. 

Fakaofo,    Tonga,     Futuna, 

kanam 

Marina,  Norbarbar. 

Maori. 

kemam 

Norbarbar. 

keimami  Viti. 

kemem 

Vanua  Lava,  Motlav,  Lo. 

komom 

Vanua  Lava. 

kama 

Aneityum,  Gog. 

igemeam  Volow. 

gama 

Lakon. 

iame'u 

Wango. 

gema 

Ambrym. 

meat 

Duke  of  York. 

kami 

Maewo. 

mai 

Savo,    Mekeo,    Pokau,    Kabadi, 

gami 

Fagani,  Nggela,  Bugotu,  Ngao. 

Motu,  Hula,  Keapara,  Suau, 

ngami 

Sesake. 

Sariba. 

hami 

Vaturanga. 

namai 

Waima,  Roro. 

iami 

Ulawa. 

ma 

Sinaugoro,  Tubetube,  Panaieti. 

mimi 

Epi. 

Without  being  fully  prepared  to  discuss  the  life  history  of  this 
exclusive  pronoun,  I  have  sought  to  order  the  material  at  present  avail- 
able in  such  wise  that  the  system  in  variety  may  be  suggested.  In 
Polynesia  we  find  in  the  dual  and  plural  exclusive  of  the  first  person  the 
stem  ma  in  composition  with  the  remnant  of  the  numerals  two  lua  and 
three  tolu  respectively.  In  Viti  with  its  three  numbers  above  unity  we 
have  for  the  first  person  exclusive  the  suite,  dual  keirau,  trinal  keitou, 
plural  keimami;  from  this  it  is  clear  that  kei  being  common  to  the  suite 
may  not  exercise  the  precise  numeration  of  the  plurality,  although  it 
may  be  found  to  have  a  general  plural  sense;  that  as  rau  of  the  dual 
suggests  an  artificial  variant  of  rua  two  and  as  tou  trinal  is  known  to  be 
in  Polynesian  use  as  an  artificial  variant  of  tolu  three,  therefore  kei  bears 
the  exclusion  sense  of  the  composite.  Thus  we  come  to  a  comprehen- 
sion of  the  Melanesian  series  from  kamam  to  komom  locaUzed  in  the 
Banks  Group.  The  element  mami  does  not  exactly  recur  in  Melanesia, 
but  Volow  ige-meam  is  almost  identical,  and  the  eleven  forms  with 
which  the  Melanesian  list  opens  are  not  to  be  set  aside.  In  Torres 
Strait  we  find  a  considerable  deposit  of  a  mai  type,  commonly  associ- 
ated with  a  variant  ai,  and  therefore  we  may  not  definitely  ascribe  it  to 
a  primal  ma.  But  in  the  same  region  we  do  find  ma  in  three  languages. 
I  am  as  yet  unable  to  resolve  the  Visayan  cama  (Bontoc  Igorot  tjakami) ; 
taken  as  a  whole  we  find  it  represented  in  Melanesia  in  kama,  gama, 
gema,  most  likely  in  kamai  and  gamai,  which  should  serve  to  link  the 
Savo  and  Torres  Strait  mai  into  place,  and  perhaps  in  the  Banks  Group 
series. 

58.  mull  the  stem;  Visayan  olin  id. 
(This  will  be  discussed  under  the  item  uli.) 

59.  namu  mosquito;  Visayan  namoc  id.     P.  W.  386. 


namu 

Samoa,     Tonga,     Futuna,     Niue, 

Uvea,  Rarotonga,  Mangareva, 

namok    Malay,  Bugi,  Visayan 

Nuguria,  Sikaiana,  Nukuoro, 

njamok  Dayak. 

Mangaia,    Paumotu,    Maori, 

njamo     Macassar. 

Marquesas,  Tahiti,  Viti. 

hamok    Kayan. 

namo 

Fotuna. 

yamuc    Pampangas. 

ramu 

Tahiti. 

muka      Malagasy. 

rom 

Rotuma. 

lamu       Macassar. 

136 


THE  SUBANU. 


As  set  forth  in  my  former  note,  we  sense  a  primal  mok,  although  in 
no  speech  yet  found  does  it  appear  unsupported.  Additional  to  the 
closed  Indonesian  forms  here  listed,  I  note  similars  from  Melanesia; 
Marina  naniugi,  Lakon  namug,  Galavi  and  Boniki  namokiri,  Tangoan 
Santo  moke,  Malo  mohe,  Tanna  kumug,  Taupota  himokini,  Wedau  imo- 
kini.     The  Dayak  and  Macassar  forms  have  a  parallel  in  Modnus  njam. 


6o.  nifo  tooth;  Subanu  ngisi 

id.     P 

W.  302. 

1  nifo 

Samoa,   Tonga,   Niue,   Futuna, 

25 

livon 

Siassi. 

Uvea,     Fakaofo,     Fotuna, 

26 

liwo 

Arag,  Graget. 

Moiki. 

27 

lewo 

Motlav. 

2  niho 

Nukuoro,  Aniwa,  Maori, 

Tahiti, 

28 

liwoi 

Mota,  Maewo. 

Hawaii,  Marquesas, 

Rapa- 

29 

liwun 

Rook. 

nui,  Mangareva,  Paumotu, 

30 

luvo 

Admiralty. 

Manahiki. 

31 

luon 

Bilibili. 

3  nitcho  Sikaiana. 

32 

lung 

Jabim. 

4  nio 

Mangaia,  Raro tonga. 

ii 

riho 

Wango. 

5  ngiho 

Nuguria. 

34 

ribo 

Malekula. 

35 

hise 

Motu. 

6  nifan 

Onin. 

36 

ike 

Doura. 

7  niho 

Ulawa,  Saa,  Bululaha,  Buka. 

37 

igeo 

Uni. 

8  nihena  Roro. 

38 

oke 

Galavi,  Boniki. 

9  niwo 

Awalama. 

39 

ivo 

Taupota,  Wedau 

10  niuwo 

Tavara. 

11  niou 

lai. 

40 

nifoa 

Matabello. 

12  nyo 

Lifu. 

41 

nify 

Malagasy. 

13  nibo 

Mukawa. 

42 

niiin 

Chamorro. 

14  nise 

Kabadi. 

43 

nihi 

Manatolo,  Sula. 

15  nisan 

Nok6n. 

44 

nihan 

Kisa. 

16  nike 

Pokau. 

45 

nichi 

Bouton. 

17  ni'e 

Mekeo. 

46 

nissy 

East  Vaiqueno. 

18  ni 

Panaieti. 

47 

nissin 

West  Brissi. 

19  nini 

Tubetube,  Misima. 

48 

nipun 

Magindano. 

20  nungi 

Tagula. 

49 

knipan  Kayan. 

21  ngise 

Pala. 

50 

ngisi 

Subanu. 

22  lifo 

Fagani. 

51 

ngipin 

Tagalog. 

23  liho 

Buka,  Ugi,  Bougainville. 

52 

ngipon  Visayan. 

24  livo 

Alite,  Vaturanga,  Nggela 

Bieri- 

an,  Epi,  Wuvulu,  Aua,  Pa- 

luan,  Leut,  Nakanai 

The  available  data  from  the  three  Oceanic  areas  have  been  here 
arrayed  upon  the  basis  of  the  changes  which  are  found  to  have  taken 
place  in  the  initial  consonant.  In  Polynesia  and  Indonesia  these  are 
very  slight,  n-ng  in  5,  50,  51,  and  52.  This  is  a  mutation  from  lingual 
backward  to  palatal,  of  great  frequency  in  the  nasals  of  these  languages. 
The  kn  of  Kayan  (49)  is  anomalous.  With  the  excessive  variety  of  the 
initial  in  the  Melanesian  areas  we  need  not  engage,  for  it  does  not 
enlighten  us  upon  any  problems  of  the  Malayan  and  the  Polynesian  at 
this  point.  In  Uke  manner  we  note  the  persistence  of  the  former  vowel  i 
and  therefore  need  not  consider  Melanesia. 

The  second  consonant  f  exhibits  great  variety  and  presents  prob- 
lems. We  find  the  f  in  i ,  all  Proto-Samoan  Languages  and  confined  to 
Nuclear  Polynesia,  including  two  of  the  languages  of  the  Western  Verge 
and  omitting  three.  In  Melanesia  this  f  occurs  but  in  two  languages 
(6,  22),  in  Indonesia  but  three  times  (41  the  extreme  western  offshoot 
of  the  Malayan,  40  and  42  extreme  eastern  offshoots).     Labial  mutants 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MAI.AYAN.  137 

do  not  appear  in  Polynesia.  Indonesia  shows  but  one  such  mutant, 
f-p,  spirant  to  mute  and  both  surd,  in  48,  49,  5 1 ,  and  52.  In  Melanesia 
this  mutation  is  found  in  13  and  34;  but  there  are  other  labial  mutants, 
f-V,  surd  spirant  to  sonant  spirant,  in  24,  25,  30,  and  39 ;  f-w,  spirant  to 
semivowel  proximate  to  the  labial  tract,  in  9,  10,  26,  27,  28,  and  29;  to 
extinction  along  this  channel  in  11,  12,  and  3 1 . 

In  our  next  group  of  mutations  we  find  the  result  in  the  aspirate. 
At  this  point  I  must  renew  attention  upon  the  fact  that  speech  has 
three  aspirates,  one  proximate  to  each  of  the  three  tracts  of  speech 
organs.  It  is  a  breathing  always,  almost  formless,  not  dependent  upon 
palate,  tongue  or  lips  for  its  production,  therefore  not  to  be  set  in  pala- 
tal, lingual  or  labial  series  but  in  close  juxtaposition  thereto.  We  find 
mutation  to  an  aspiration  near  the  labial,  f-h,  in  Polynesia  2,  all  Tonga- 
fiti  languages  except  Nukuoro,  a  secondary  Samoan,  and  Aniwa,  best 
regarded  as  secondary  to  some  undetermined  language  of  Nuclear  Poly- 
nesia; in  5,  one  of  the  islands  of  the  Western  Verge,  I  hope  to  show  that 
this  aspiration  is  not  labial.  Through  this  channel  we  find  the  extinc- 
tion of  the  second  consonant  in  4,  both  Tongafiti  languages.  Now  let 
us  examine  3,  the  nitcho  of  Sikaiana,  an  island  of  the  Western  Verge, 
and  compare  with  it  nichi  of  Bouton  in  the  Celebes  subprovince  of 
Malaysia.  This  tch  is  a  lingual,  therefore  not  to  be  considered  a  muta- 
tion product  from  f  labial,  for  such  mutation  extra  seriem  is  not  to  be 
considered  when  another  explanation  is  possible.  In  Subanu  ngisi  we 
have  another  lingual,  and  it  is  at  least  interesting  that  the  initial  conso- 
nant ng  also  occurs  in  Nuguria  (5),  a  near  neighbor  of  Sikaiana.  It  is 
true  that  nitcho-ngiho  differ  in  the  final  vowel  from  ngisi,  but  that 
amounts  to  little  since  in  41  and  42  we  have  nijy  and  nifin,  undoubted 
congeners  of  nifo.  We  are  justified  in  the  conclusion  that  there  were 
two  primal  stems  nifo{i)  and  ngisi{o);  the  fact  that  we  have  one  in 
Malagasy  and  Chamorro,  the  other  in  Subanu,  shows  that  they  were  at 
least  of  equal  currency  in  the  earliest  period.  The  forms  with  S  are 
found  in  46  and  47  in  Indonesia,  in  14, 15, 21,  and  35  in  Melanesia,  andin 
Polynesia  are  absent.  The  mutation  s-tch  is  well  established  in  the 
labial  series;  we  find  it  here  in  45,  and  that  should  be  sufficient  to  set 
nitcho  of  Sikaiana  as  an  s-derivative.  The  most  common  mutation  of 
the  sibilant  is  the  weakening  to  the  juxtaposed  aspiration,  S-h.  Begin- 
ning in  the  Indonesian  region,  where  we  have  first  found  the  ngisi  stem, 
we  identify  S-h  mutants  in  43  and  44,  which  are  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  Subanu,  therefore  archetypal  in  this  region.  In  Melanesia  we  shall 
find  the  geography  of  the  s  and  the  h  forms  instructive.  We  find  ngise 
in  Pala,  nise  in  Kabadi  and  nisan  in  Nokon,  all  in  the  gateway  through 
the  Bismarck  Archipelago  where  the  Samoa  Stream  made  exit  into  the 
Pacific.  Next  we  find  niho  (7)  in  Ulawa,  Saa,  Bululaha,  Buka,  all  just 
at  the  portal  in  the  Solomon  Islands,  and  liho  (23)  in  Buka,  Ugi  and 
Bougainville,  and  riho  at  Wango,  in  the  same  chain  of  islands  along  the 


138 


THE   SUBANU. 


course  of  the  Samoa  Stream.  Next  in  our  two  stations  of  the  Polyne- 
sian Verge,  not  far  to  windward  offshore  of  the  Solomons,  we  find  in 
Sikaiana  nitcho  an  indisputable  s-mutant,  and  by  proximity  we  deem 
Nuguria  ngiho  (with  its  patent  initial  resemblance  to  the  Subanu)  an 
S-h  mutant.  Against  this  plain  reading  of  the  record  we  are  to  set  the 
occurrence  of  S  forms  in  hise  (35)  at  Motu  and  a  secondary  nihena  (8) 
at  Roro,  both  in  the  Torres  Strait,  which  is  on  other  grounds  well 
established  as  the  gateway  of  the  Viti  Stream.  These  two  instances  need 
cause  no  serious  hindrance  to  the  acceptation  of  this  interpretation. 

The  second  vowel  falls  into  two  groups,  O  and  its  derivatives,  i  and 
its  derivatives.  For  o  we  have  a  complete  accord  throughout  Polynesia ; 
in  Melanesia  in  7,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13,  22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  27,  28,  30,  31,  33, 
34,  and  39,  and  the  u- variant  in  29,  and  a  less  common  a- variant  in  6  and 
15;  in  Indonesia  we  find  0  in  40  and  52,  the  u-variant  in  48,  the  a- 
variant  in  44  and  49.  Of  the  i  group  we  find  no  trace  in  Polynesia;  in 
Melanesia  we  have  it  in  its  e-variant  in  8,  14,  16,  17,  21,35,36,  and  38; 
in  Indonesia  we  find  i  in  41,  42,  43,  45,  46,  47,  50,  and  51. 

Last  of  all  we  examine  the  data  for  traces  of  a  final  consonant.  In 
Polynesia  with  its  open  type  we  find  no  suggestion  of  an  anterior  closed 
stem.  In  Indonesia  a  final  n  is  exhibited  in  42,  44,  47, 48, 49, 51,  and  52. 
We  find  the  same  n  in  Melanesia  in  6,  8,  15,  25,  29,  31,  and  32.  There 
can  be  httle  doubt  that  one  or  both  of  the  primal  stems  was  closed  with 
this  consonant. 


niu 


Samoa,  Tonga,  Fakaofo,  Futuna, 
Niue,  Uvea,  Viti,  Rotuma,  Fo- 
tuna,  Nukuoro,  Nuguria,  Moiki, 
Maori,  Rarotonga,  Manahiki, 
Tongarewa,  Hawaii,  Paumotu, 
Mangareva,  Rapanui,  Marque- 
sas. 

Mangaia. 


niu  Kowamerara,  Tatau,  Barriai,  Na- 
matote,  Saa,  Lobo,  Sesake,  Epi, 
Arag,  Ulawa,  Wango,  Fagani, 
Bululaha,  Vaturanga,  Nggela, 
Bugotu,  Motu,  Kabadi,  Pokau, 
Doura,  Sinaugoro,  Keapara, 
Hula,  Galoma,  Mugula,  Suau, 
Sariba,  Tubetube,  Panaieti, 
Nada,  Dobu,  Port  Moresby, 
Mannam,  Moanus,  Lifu,  Solo- 
mon Islands. 

niyu       Karufa. 

nihu      Misima. 

niwi       Areimoa. 

neu        Buka. 

liu  Alite. 

niura     Mukawa. 

neura    Awalama,  Taupota. 

diura     Kwagila. 

rura      Kubiri,  Kiviri. 

nu  Nengone,  Nifilole. 


LO  coconut  grove.     P.  W.  390. 

nuia 

Kiriwina. 

luia 

Kiriwina. 

ni 

New  Caledonia. 

niu 

Bima,  Uap. 

nju 

Dayak. 

nyu 

Salibabo. 

inyug 

Bontoc  Igorot. 

nihu 

Malagasy. 

nior 

Malay. 

niula 

Gah. 

nier 

Liang. 

niwer 

Ceram. 

niwel 

Ceram. 

niwi 

Cajeli,  Wayapo,  Massaratty,  Am 

blaw. 

nimel 

Ceram. 

nimil 

Lariko. 

nikwe 

Ceram. 

niweli 

Batumerah,  Caimarian. 

liweli 

Awaiya. 

nuelo 

Teluti. 

luen 

Wahai. 

nu 

Java. 

nui 

Sulu. 

nuim 

Ahtiago. 

nua  - 

Tobo. 

niir 

Malay. 

niyog 

Bicol,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

niugao  Subanu. 

POLYNESIAN  AND  MALAYAN.  139 

The  most  frequent  of  these  forms  is  the  niu  of  all  three  Oceanic 
areas  and  its  immediate  derivatives.  A  nu  type  is  found  in  Mangaia 
alone  of  Polynesia,  in  Nengone  and  Nifilole  of  Melanesia,  and  in  Java 
of  Indonesia.  In  each  of  the  latter  the  derivatives  of  nu  may  readily  be 
recognized.  In  ni,  ascribed  to  New  Caledonia,  where  a  multiplicity  of 
languages  exists,  we  may  have  no  more  than  a  variant  of  the  Nengone 
nu,  U-i  being  well  recognized  among  the  vocalic  mutations.  From  niu 
to  nu  we  find  a  feasible  series  of  transition  forms  in  Torres  Strait,  niura 
to  diura  to  rura,  save  that  at  the  last  we  fiind  no  explanation  for  the  loss 
of  i  any  more  than  we  can  comprehend  the  same  loss  as  between  niu  and 
nu  in  their  simple  form. 

Reverting  to  the  ni  type,  for  which  I  have  already  suggested  the 
possibiUty  of  vocalic  mutation,  it  is  worthy  of  closer  examination.  If 
ni  were  primal  and  carried  such  sense  as  to  the  logical  powers  of  these 
primitive  folk  suggested  a  genus,  then  it  might  be  possible  to  regard  niu 
as  composite  of  wi  and  u,  the  latter  being  too  formless  for  us  now  to 
venture  to  interpret.  In  Mangareva  we  have  an  interesting  pair  of 
coconut  words;  ni-ii  is  used  of  the  young  palm,  ni-kau  when  it  has 
grown  up.  But  we  are  able  to  identify  kau;  it  is  the  general  term  for 
tree  (cf .  item  30) ;  therefore  nikau  is  clearly  the  w^'-tree ;  by  analogy  niu 
should  be  the  ni-aliquid,  an  indefiniteness  which  we  can  not  yet  resolve. 
Disregarding  a  terminal  consonant  or  even  additional  syllable,  we  find 
for  this  second  member  of  the  word,  u,  hu,  yu,  0,  yo,  e,  we,  wi.  Of  these 
the  :v-forms  are  susceptible  of  ready  explanation:  nyu  amounts  to  no 
more  than  variety  of  transUteration  of  niu;  in  niyog  the  y  represents  the 
glide  of  the  vowel  from  the  palatal  position  of  i  to  the  labial  position  of 
O.  Conversely  the  aspiration  in  nihu  represents  the  purposeful  inter- 
ruption of  such  gUde.  When  we  pass  through  o  to  e,  a  mutation  series 
which  is  well  established,  we  find  a  group  of  forms  in  Ceram  which 
exhibit  marked  changes.  For  niwel  we  have  abundant  support  in 
several  languages.  From  niwel  to  nimel  is  supported  by  Lariko  in 
Amboyna ;  since  the  semivowel  w  is  close  to  the  lips  and  m  is  the  labial 
nasal  the  mutation  lies  within  the  same  series.  But  we  are  left  without 
any  accounting  for  the  intrusive  palatal  mute  in  nikwel.  At  present 
the  resolution  of  this  tangle  eludes  us. 

62.  pe,  po  interrogative  particles;  Subanu  ba  id. 


pe     Samoa,  Futuna,  Hawaii.  

be     Tonga.  be     Efate. 

pee  Uvea.  

po     Samoa,  Futuna,  Nine.  ba     Subanu,  Visayan. 

This  particle  is  in  wider  Polynesian  use,  but  with  a  variation  in 
sense.  As  interrogative  it  is  restricted  to  Nuclear  Polynesia  and  the 
Proto-Samoan ;  in  the  Tongafiti  languages  it  is  but  a  disjunctive  particle. 
The  Efate  is  an  interesting  link  between  the  Philippines  and  Nuclear 
Polynesia. 


140  THE   SUBANU. 

63.  pepelo  a  lie;  Subanu  balos  id. 

These  may  properly  be  associated  for  the  present,  although  affil- 
iates are  nowhere  to  be  found.  The  Proto-Samoan  stem  we  find  to  be 
pelong  in  Samoan  pelongia  of  the  objective  aspect ;  therefore  we  may  not 
make  the  identification  with  halos  positive  in  the  absence  of  transition 
forms,  but  it  warrants  consideration. 

64.  pili  lizard ;  Visayan  tabili  a  large  newt. 
plli  Samoa,  Futuna.  I  biii  Tonga. 

We  find  this  stem  narrowly  restricted  to  Nuclear  Polynesia.  The 
Visayan  is  evidently  a  composite  upon  the  same  stem.  In  alimango 
(item  6)  we  have  a  still  more  noteworthy  instance  of  the  community  of 
animal  names  between  these  widely  sundered  regions. 

65.  po  night,  calendar  day;  Subanu  labong  yesterday,  lalabong  after- 
noon, P.  W.  330. 

po  Samoa,  Fakaofo,   Niue,  Uvea,  Fo- 

tuna,  Tahiti,  Manahiki,  Futuna, 
Maori,  Hawaii,  Mangaia,  Mar- 
quesas, Mangareva,  Rapanui, 
Nukuoro,  Paumotu,  Nuguria, 
Sikaiana. 

pongis  Samoa. 

pongi    Samoa,  Nukuoro. 

ko-po    Aniwa. 

pope      Bukabuka. 

bo  Tonga,  Nuguria,  Sikaiana. 


boni  Rotuma. 

mbongi    Viti. 


bungi        Java,  Salayer. 
bo-etta      Macassar, 
po-garagara  Teor. 
caha-pon  Visayan. 
bangi        Macassar. 
bengi         Minahassa. 
wengi        Minahassa. 


We  have  no  difficulty  in  tracing  successive  stages  of  this  vocable 
from  po  to  pong  to  pongi  to  pongis.  These  are  all  found  in  Polynesia, 
in  Indonesia  we  lack  pongis.  In  this  fullest  form  the  stem  has  the 
appearance  of  a  composite ;  we  are  not  able  to  resolve  it  accurately,  yet 
there  is  some  reason  to  regard  po  as  primal  in  the  sense  of  dark. 

66.  punga  coral;  Visayan  apog  lime. 


punga 

Samoa,  Futuna,   Niue,    Rapanui, 

pua         Tahiti,  Paumotu. 

Mangareva,  Maori. 

bunga    Tonga. 

puna 

Hawaii,  Marquesas. 

vunga     Viti. 

puka 

Marquesas. 

The  form  variety  is  easily  disposed  of.  We  recognize  in  these 
southern  Philippine  languages  the  employment  of  a  (ca)  prefixed  in  the 
sense  of  a  noun  determinant;  the  mutation  from  nasal  to  mute  in  the 
palatal  series  is  exhibited  in  one  of  the  Marquesan  forms.  The  sense 
may  readily  be  brought  into  harmony;  these  peoples  had  long  since 
known  the  art  of  obtaining  lime  by  burning  the  coral;  in  Hawaii, 
Rapanui,  and  Nine  the  same  word  does  duty  for  the  raw  material  and 
for  the  product. 


POIyYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN. 


141 


67. 


pupula  to  shine;  Subanu  bulan  moon,  month.     P.  W.  329. 


pupula 

Niue. 

huia 

Doura. 

vula 

Viti. 

hua 

Motu. 

hula 

Rotuma. 

uran 
pulan 

Karufa,  Utanata. 

pura 

Angadi,  Mimika. 

Chamorro. 

pul 

Umre,  Leut. 

pula 

Uap. 

bura 

Lakahia. 

bulan 

Malay,  Ilocano,  Subanu 

bulo 

Uni. 

bolan 

Visayan. 

bol 

Leng. 

bulang 

Tringanu. 

mbul 

Moanus, 

bula 

Kaili. 

buia 

Umi. 

buran 

Ceram. 

bue 

Keapara,  Galoma. 

burang 

Solor. 

furan 

Lobo,  Mairassis. 

bulam 

Molucca. 

fule 

Graget. 

fulan 

Am. 

vula 

Nggela,    Belaga,    Marina,    Arag, 

fula 

Rotti. 

Mota,     Vaturanga 

Bugotu, 

furan 

Lobo. 

Pokau. 

funan 

Timor. 

vule 

Omba. 

fuya 

Togean. 

vuia 

Pokau. 

fuan 

Bontoc  Igorot. 

vul 

Merlav,  Gog,  Lakon. 

wulan 

Gilolo.  Solor. 

wula 

Maewo. 

wura 

Bima. 

wuran 

Namatote. 

huran 

Ceram. 

W'Ol 

Vuras,  Mosin,  Motlav, 

Volow. 

ulan 

Magindano. 

wui 

Rubi. 

ulang 

Kisa. 

hura 

Wango. 

ulano 

Ceram. 

The  primal  sense  is  that  of  shining,  more  particularly  of  a  white 
light,  a  sense  which  predominates  in  the  Polynesian  of  each  migration. 
In  the  Pacific  at  present  the  moon  word  is  masina,  a  conditional  of  sina 
white.  That  pulan  is  the  earlier  word  is  exhibited  by  the  completeness 
of  its  series  out  of  the  Malay  seas  through  Melanesia  and  into  Nuclear 
Polynesia. 

68.  pusi  to  puff;  Subanu  boi  to  fire  a  gun. 


pusi 

Futuna. 

puhi 

Niue,  Maori,  Hawaii,  Marquesas, 

bus! 

Efate. 

Mangareva,    Rapanui,    Pau- 

vus 

Mota. 

motu. 

pupuhi 

Uvea,  Tahiti. 

ambus 

Malay. 

pupui 

Rarotonga. 

bohi 

Visayan 

bubuhi 

Tonga. 

boi 

Subanu. 

The  Subanu  signification  is  a  particular  and,  of  course,  a  modem 
one.  The  general  sense  of  blowing  and  puffing  runs  through  all  these 
affiliates  and  occurs  in  Polynesian  of  each  migration ;  the  identifications 
in  Efate  and  Mota  show  that  it  accompanied  the  Proto-Samoans  in 
their  earlier  wandering  down  through  the  Melanesian  chains. 

69.  sala  to  err;  Subanu  sala  id. 
Samoa,  Futuna. 


Tagalog,  Subanu,  Visayan. 

Malay. 

Malagasy,  Kayan,  Java,  Kisa. 


sala 

hala     Tonga,  Niue,  Uvea.  sala 

dhaia  Viti.  salah 

hara    Rapanui,  Marquesas,  Tahiti,  Maori.       hala 
ara       Mangareva,  Rarotonga. 

Students  of  comparative  morahty  may  find  a  certain  interest  in  the 
evidence  borne  by  this  word  that  the  conviction  of  sin  was  not  intro- 
duced by  the  missionaries.  Even  primitive  savages  have  recognized 
that  to  wander  and  to  go  astray  from  such  standards  as  they  had  was  a 
wandering  of  the  soul,  a  sin.     The  use  of  the  word  in  the  Maori  is  clear 


142  THE   SUBANU. 

evidence  that  it  was  possible,  though  thrillingly  dangerous,  to  sin  against 
the  tabu.  In  the  Indonesian  affihates  noted  under  hala  the  moral  sense 
has  advanced  yet  one  stage  beyond  the  actual  fact  of  sin ;  these  words 
mean,  in  order,  "hated,  detested,"  "guilty,"  "base,  mean,"  "wrong." 
From  the  mere  fact  of  dehnquency  the  connotation  has  begun  to  par- 
ticularize the  estimate  in  which  the  delinquent  is  held  by  the  right- 
living  majority  of  his  community. 

70.  selu  a  comb;  Visayan  solod  id.     P.  W.  218. 


selu  Samoa,  Futuna,  Nukuoro. 

seru  Nukuoro,  Fotuna,  Viti. 

helu  Tonga,  Uvea. 

hetu  Niue. 


saru     Matmam  (New  Guinea). 


sisir     Malay. 
solod   Visayan. 


dhuru  Viti. 

julok     Malay. 
juluka  Malagasy. 
solot      Subanu. 
solod     Visayan. 


In  Nuclear  Polynesian  and  the  islands  of  the  Verge  this  is  found 
particularized  as  a  noun;  the  general  verb  sense  of  scratching  is  met 
with  in  Polynesia  in  both  migration  streams. 

71.  sulu  to  enter;  Subanu  solot  id.     P.  W.  405. 

sulu  Samoa,  Futuna,  Nukuoro. 

suru  Fotuna,  Nukuoro. 

hulu  Tonga,  Niue. 

huru  Rapanui. 

uru  Rapanui,  Tahiti,  Mangareva. 

uu  Marquesas. 

In  the  former  note  on  this  vocable  I  pointed  out  the  fact  that  in 

Polynesian  we  find  traces  of  the  stem  as  closed  in  f ,  m  and  n.     We  now 

find  it  in  Indonesia  as  closed  in  k  and  in  t.     Probably  these  forms  are 

homogenetic,  but  we  have  not  yet  sufiicient  data  whereupon  to  base  a 

determination  of  the  primal  stem. 

72.  sulu  a  torch;  Subanu  sulu  id.     P.  W.  247. 

sulu     Subanu. 
suluh  Malay,  Java. 
solo      Visayan. 
sil-lu  Bontoc  Igorot. 

Additional  to  the  torch  sense,  which  is  found  in  Indonesia  and  in 
Samoa,  Tonga,  Niue,  Baki,  and  Motu,  we  have  the  abstract  meaning  of 
shine,  which  is  found  concurrently  with  the  torch  sense  in  Samoa,  Tonga, 
and  Niue,  and  exclusive  thereof  in  Futuna  and  Maori. 

73.  susu  the  breast;  Visayan  soso  the  breast,  to  suck.lT^P.  W.  410. 


sulu     Samoa,  Futuna. 
hulu    Tonga,  Niue. 
huru    Maori. 


susu 

Samoa,  Futuna. 

susan      Matu. 

huhu 

Tonga,  Niue,  Uvea,  Nuguria. 

sus           Waigiou. 

sudhu 

Viti. 

usok         Kayan. 
dughan  Visayan. 

susu 

Malay,  Java,  Bugis,  Pampangas, 

tusun      Siassi. 

Macassar,  Chamorro,  Kai. 

thuth      Uap. 

suso 

Tagalog. 

tutu         Gorontalo,  Bunda 

soso 

Visayan,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

I  have  not  here  sought  to  distinguish  the  three  senses  carried  by 
this  word,  the  breast,  the  milk,  and  to  suck,  for  that  has  already  been 
discussed  at  length  at  the  place  cited  in  the  note. 


POIyYNESIAN   AND   MAI.AYAN. 


143 


74.  susunu  to  bum;  Visayan  sonog  to  set  afire.  P.  W.  407. 


sunu    Samoa,  Futuna,  Viti. 
hunu  Tonga,  Niue,  Uvea,  Maori. 


sunu         To  Bungku,  To  Mori. 
sonog       Visayan. 
ishunok  Bontoc  Igorot. 

Other  problems  of  interesting  variants  upon  this  stem  have  been 
examined  in  The  Polynesian  Wanderings,  loc.  cit.  In  this  particular 
form  we  find  a  close  filiation  between  the  PhiUppines  and  Nuclear  Poly- 
nesia with  its  Proto-Samoan  peopUng. 

75.  tae  excrement;  Subanu  tee  id.     P.  W.  414. 


tae  Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Uvea,  Moriori. 

te     Niue. 

tae   Visayan,  Magindano,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

tee    Tonga. 

tai    Malay,  Macassar,  Klemantan. 

nda  Viti. 

tay  Malagasy. 

nde  Viti. 

tee   Subanu. 

In  continuation  of  the  former  note  upon  the  use  of  this  obscene 
word  as  a  proper  name  I  find  an  interesting  case  reported  by  Hose  and 
McDougall  from  the  Klemantans  of  Borneo.  Children  remain  un- 
named during  their  infancy  in  order  that  they  may  escape  the  notice  of 
evil  spirits,  and  when  at  last  a  name  has  been  given  they  are  long 
addressed  by  tai  in  order  that  these  spirits  may  incUne  to  leave  them 
alone. 

76.  tali  rope;  Subanu  tali  id.     P.  W.  414. 

tali       Nukuoro.  I    tali       Malay,  Subanu,  Chamorro. 
ndali   Viti.  tadi      Malagasy. 
1    tai        Uap. 

We  have  increased  the  former  note  by  no  new  items  from  Polynesia, 
but  the  three  Indonesian  additions  are  not  without  significance,  for 
the  Subanu,  the  Chamorro,  and  the  Uap  represent  an  extreme  easterly 
sweep  of  migration  and  are  therefore  to  be  regarded  as  archetypal. 
77.  talinga  ear;  Subanu  talinga  id.     P.  W.  415. 


talinga 

Samoa,  Fakaofo,  Futuna 

,  Uvea, 

tainga 

Sulu,  Tagalog. 

Nukuoro. 

tadiny 

Malagasy. 

kau-talina  Sikaiana. 

kaling 

Kolon. 

ndalinga 

Viti. 

karin 

Teor. 

taninga 

Nukuoro. 

tali 

Uap. 

tanginga 

Moiki. 

toll 

Macassar. 

telinga 

Tonga,  Niue. 

telinga 

Malay,  Sula,  Baju. 

taringa 

Maori,     Rarotonga,     Paumotu, 

telingan 

Wayapo. 

Rapanui,  Manahiki, 

Aniwa, 

telina 

Morella. 

Fotuna. 

telinawa 

Batumerah. 

tarina 

Nuguria. 

telila 

Cajeli. 

teringa 

Mangareva. 

teninare 

Wahai. 

tiringa 

Moriori. 

tengeh 

Silong. 

karinga 

Liueniua. 

tarina 

Ceram. 

faliang 

Rotuma. 

terina 

Liang,  Lariko. 

aina 

Marquesas. 

terinamo 

terinam 

terena 

Awaiya. 

Caimarian. 

Saparua. 

talinga 

Malay,  Bouton,  Dayak,  Visayan, 

Subanu. 

16-jilingo 

Marshall  Islands. 

talingan 

Java,  Basakrama. 

tjuling 

Bugis. 

talingo 

Menankabau. 

linga 

North  Borneo. 

talinhe 

Satawal. 

lingah 

Matu. 

talenga 

Ulea. 

linganani 

Massaratty. 

talanga 

Chamorro. 

dalonggan  Visayan. 

talina 

Ceram. 

144 


THE   SUBANU. 


In  the  Indonesian  series  of  affiliates  we  note  mutation  in  two  direc- 
tions which  are  contradictory  of  one  another  so  far  as  they  may  be 
expected  to  yield  the  primal  stem  of  this  manifestly  composite  vocable. 
Superficially  talinga  has  the  appearance  of  a  verbal  noun  formed  by  the 
suffix  nga  proper  to  that  sense  applied  to  a  stem  tali,  of  which  we  have 
no  knowledge  beyond  this  hypothesis.  In  Uap  and  Macassar  we  find 
simple  forms  tali  and  toli,  which  seem  to  bear  upon  this  point.  On  the 
other  hand  we  find  a  group  of  three  forms  in  which  linga  is  the  theme,  a 
suggestion  that  this  is  the  primal  stem  rather  than  tali.  No  decision 
upon  this  point  is  yet  possible.  Of  the  alternative  Visayan  form 
dalonggan  Fray  Juan  Felix  notes  the  derivation  from  dongog  to  hear. 
This  is  a  somewhat  violent  infixature  in  Visayan ;  it  would  never  have 
suggested  itself  if  this  lexicographer  had  had  a  gHmpse  at  the  exte- 
rior history  of  the  word. 

78.  talc  to  pray;  Subanu  talo  to  speak.     P.  W.  236. 


tatalo  Samoa,  Futuna,  Tonga. 

taro     Rapanui,  Tahiti,  Nukuoro,  Viti. 


tatao  Marquesas. 
kalo     Hawaii. 


The  Proto-Samoan  stem  is  discovered  to  be  taros,  which  we  should 
expect  to  find  preserved  in  the  Subanu ;  perhaps  the  accent  upon  the 
ultima  is  compensatory  for  the  loss  of  the  final  consonant.  The  sense 
association  involves  difficulties.  In  all  the  Polynesian  the  signification 
is  that  of  asking  the  higher  powers  for  a  boon,  some  good  for  him  who 
asks  or  evil  upon  his  neighbor.  In  Viti  the  sense  of  "prevent"  is  asso- 
ciable  only  as  the  answer  to  prayer,  for  there  is  strongly  marked  a  desire 
for  prophylaxis  in  most  orisons.  That  the  word  in  Subanu,  if  indeed 
the  affihation  be  tenable,  has  come  to  mean  no  more^than  to  speak, 
requires  a  more  spiritual  comprehension  of  the  theology  of  the  savage 
than  we  are  able  to  supply. 

79.  tama  father;  Subanu  gama  id.     P.  W.  272. 


tama 

Samoa,  Fakaofo. 

a'mam 

Cajeli. 

tama 

Aniwa,  Viti. 

amai 

Ahtiago. 

tamai 

Tonga,  Uvea. 

amaeolo 

Teluti. 

tamana 

Futuna,  Sikaiana,   Fotuna,  Nu- 

amao 

Amblaw. 

guria,  Nukuoro. 

amana 

Bouton. 

i  Am;i 

A/TpnflHo 

tamd 

Gilbert  Islands. 

yaman 

Sanguir. 

tama 

Klemantan. 

jaman 

Tobo. 

am^ 

Sasak. 

kiamat 

Bolanghitam 

ama 

Bima. 

mama 

Gah. 

ama 

Visayan,   Bontoc  Igorot,   Kolon, 

mam 

Mysot. 

Salayer,  Liang,  Lariko,  Teor, 

nama 

Wayapo. 

Saparua,  Awaiya,  Caimarian, 

naama 

Massaratty. 

Wahai. 

gama 

Subanu. 

a'ma 

Morella. 

In  the  father  sense  tama  is  wholly  Proto-Samoan.  In  the  later 
migration  tama  is  a  composition  member  of  such  words  as  tamaloa  man 
and  tamaiti  child.  The  latter  is  instructive.   As  iti  means  little  the  com- 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN. 


145 


posite  signifies  "little  tama."  So  with  tamafafine,  this  means  "woman 
tama."  It  is  highly  improbable  that  any  simple  minds  could  think 
of  calling  a  child,  little  father;  it  is  inconceivable  that  a  girl  could  be 
spoken  of  as  a  female  father  with  its  clear  contradiction  in  terms.  In 
the  later  migration,  therefore,  tama  means  no  more  than  human  being. 
In  the  rude  society  of  the  earUer  migration  it  is  quite  possible  that  society 
was  recognized  as  consisting  of  human  beings  and  women ;  therefore  the 
word  would  acquire  largely  a  male  connotation;  then  particularly  the 
head  of  the  family  unit;  thence,  in  view  of  his  function,  father. 

There  is  one  great  problem  in  the  study  of  the  form  of  the  vocable. 
Subanu  gama  is  readily  seen  to  be  the  common  Indonesian  ama  with  its 
own  characteristic  noun-formative  prefix.  All  Polynesia  has  the  tama 
form,  practically  all  Indonesia  has  ama;  in  Melanesia  the  two  are  about 
equal  in  occurrence  and  they  are  found  indifferently  in  neighboring 
communities.  I  regard  tama  as  primal,  principally  for  the  reason  that 
I  have  found  it  in  the  Klemantan  of  North  Borneo.  In  many  details 
these  pagan  tribes  of  the  great  island  show  much  in  common  with  the 
Subanu  and  they  are  recognized  as  preserving  many  of  the  words  of  an 
archetypal  Malayan. 


80.  tatou  we  (inclusive) ;  Visayan  quita  id. 


da 

ta-tou 


Viti. 

Samoa,    Futuna,    Uvea,    Maori, 
Rarotonga,  Mangareva,  Ta- 
hiti, Paumotu,  Rapanui. 
aipeki-ta-tou  Aniwa. 
tau-tolu    Tonga,  Niue. 
da-tou       Viti. 
ka-kou      Hawaii. 


ta 


gi-ta 

ngi-ta 

hi-ta 

i-ta 

ge-t 

da 


Arag,  Pokau,  Awalama,  Taupota, 
Wedau,  Galavi,  Mukawa, 
Kwagila,  Kubiri,  Raqa. 

Arag,  Marina,  Bugotu,  Ngao, 
Barriai. 

Aneityum. 

Vaturanga. 

Epi. 

Lakon,  Vanua  Lava. 

Omba,  Maewo,  Motu,  Suau,  Sa- 
riba,  Kiriwina,  Dobu,  Nada. 


gi-da 

ni-da 

da-ga 

gi-de 

i-de 

di 

d 

ge-d 

gi-d 

d-at 

ka 

'a 

ra 

la 

ta-lau 
qui-ta 


Maewo. 

Sesake. 

Lo. 

Omba. 

Nifilole. 

Murua. 

Merlav. 

Motlav. 

Merlav,  Gog,  Volow. 

Duke  of  York. 

Waima,  Roro,  Kabadi. 

Mekeo. 

Sinaugoro,   Hula,   Keapara,   Ga- 

loma,  Rubi,  Panaieti. 
Sinaugoro,  Tubetube. 


Matu. 
Visayan. 


This  pronoun  is  properly  to  be  correlated  with  the  exclusive  matou 
of  item  57.  In  studying  out  the  migration  tracks  it  will  be  found 
interesting  to  compare  the  geography  of  the  gita  type  here  with  the 
kama  type  of  the  former.  It  will  be  seen  that  Polynesia  has  had  the 
primal  ma  and  ta  and  has  developed  them  along  a  system  proper  to 
that  family ;  but  in  Melanesia  it  has  been  closely  followed  by  a  stream 
of  migration  from  some  center  possessed  of  the  gita  and  kama  personal 
pronouns,  a  stream  which  fed  the  Visayas  northward  and  Melanesia 
southward,  and  in  the  latter  direction  the  occurrence  of  this  form  at 
Barriai  shows  the  course  north  of  New  Guinea  in  contrast  with  the 


146 


THE   SUBANU. 


simple  forms  of  Torres  Strait.    The  two  primals  ma  and  ta  afford  an 
excellent  example  of  the  coefficient  value  of  consonantal  modulants. 
8i.  tifa  pearl  shell;  Visayan  tipay  mother-of-pearl. 


tifa 

Samoa,  Futuna,  Niue,  Sikaiana. 

dhiva 

Viti. 

jifa 

Tonga. 

82.  Una  mother;  Subanu  guina,  ina  id. 

tina 
tina 

Samoa. 
Viti. 

tinan 

Klemantan. 

tinana 

Futuna,  Sikaiana. 

tinano 

Rumbia. 

tinga 

Futuna. 

tiwano 

Maronene. 

jina 

Tonga. 

ina 

Sasak. 

kina 

Liueniua. 

ina 

Subanu,  Bontoc  Igorot,  Teor,  Tihu, 
Kolon,  Bima,  Amblaw,  Liang, 

tina 

Graget. 

Lariko,    Saparua,    Caimarian, 

tina 

Marina,  Vaturanga,  Nggela,  New 

Awaiya,  Wahai. 

Georgia,  Rubi,  Tagula. 

inai 

Klemantan,  Ahtiago. 

tinang 

Lent. 

inahan 

Visayan. 

tinong 

Umre. 

guina 

Subanu. 

tsitsina 

-nggu  Vitu. 

inana 

Bouton. 

tnagn 

Barriai. 

inany 

Menado,  Dorey. 

zina 

Uni. 

inungi 

Sanguir. 

sina 

Pokau,  Doura,  Motu,  Sinaugoro, 

inano 

Mengkoka. 

Suau,  Sariba,  Tubetube,  Nada, 

inanu 

Muna. 

Dobu,  Mukawa. 

inamo 

Cajeli. 

hina 

Panaieti,  Tavara,  Awalama. 

inao 

Morella,  Batumerah. 

hinana 

Roro. 

inau 

Teluti. 

inna 

Mekeo. 

neina 

Wayapo,  Massaratty. 

ina 

Wango,   Fagani,   Hula,   Keapara, 

aina 

Tobo. 

Galoma,    Misima,    Kiriwina, 

nina 

Gah,  Matabello. 

Murua,  Oiun. 

nin 

Mysot. 

As  in  the  case  of  tamd  (item  79)  the  Klemantan  preserves  for  us  in 
Indonesia  the  initial  t.  Although  some  of  the  details  are  obscure,  the 
general  range  of  the  variants  is  not  difficult  to  follow.  This  vocable 
also  is  Proto-Samoan. 

83.  tinae  intestines;  Subanu  tinee  id. 
tinae   Samoa,  Futuna,  Mangareva.  |    tinai    Mota. 

In  Polynesia  this  rare  word  is  found  but  at  three  points.  Its 
occurrence  at  Mota,  central  in  respect  of  the  Melanesian  area,  suggests 
that  when  more  complete  vocabularies  come  within  our  reach  we  may 
be  able  to  trace  it  elsewhere  in  that  intermediary  region.  I  can  not 
refrain  from  a  note  that  tinae  of  the  Polynesian  suggests  an  infix  in 
this  solitary  instance,  one  which  we  can  not  parallel  in  that  extended 
family.  This  is  a  mere  suggestion.  If  it  were  accepted  it  would  be  the 
sole  evidence  that  the  Malayans  have  exerted  any  influence  upon  the 
Polynesian.  The  infixature  will  appear  as  t:in:  ae  and  refers  inform 
and  in  sense  to  tae,  item  75. 

84.  tongo  mangrove ;  Visayan  tongog  id. 
tongo      Samoa,  Tonga.  |    ndongo  Viti. 


tui 


85.  tui  chief;  Subanu  tuan  master 
Futuna,     Niue, 


P.  W.  225. 


Samoa,     Tonga, 
Uvea,  Viti. 


tuan        Subanu,  Kayan,  Malay. 
tuhan      Malay. 
tuwan     Malay. 


POLYNESIAN  AND   MALAYAN. 


147 


In  Nuclear  Polynesian  this  word  scarcely  exists  independently,  but 
is  extremely  frequent  in  combination  with  some  place  name  or  other 
designation  determining  the  sphere  of  governing  activity.  Thus  we 
have  Tui  Levuka,  the  chief  of  Levuka  on  the  island  of  Ovalau  in  Fiji; 
in  Tonga  we  find  the  priest-king  Tui  Tonga  and  the  civil  king  Tui 
Kanokupolu,  in  which  the  designation  is  not  of  a  known  place,  although 
it  smacks  of  'Upolu  in  Samoa.  I  recall  but  a  single  instance  where  Tui 
is  used  absolutely;  it  occurs  in  the  Samoan  legend  of  Timuatea,  a 
peopling  myth. 


Ona  igoa  ai  lea  'o  le  tama  matua  ia  Tuima- 
nu'a,  'a  e  igoa  le  teine  ia  Le  Malumanu'a, 
'a  'ua  leigoa  !e  teine  itiiti.  Ona  alu  ane 
lea  'o  le  fai  mea  e  'ai,  'o  Alamisi,  'ua  alu  'ia 
Le  Malumanu'a.  Ona  fanau  ai  lea  'o  Tui, 
toe  fanau  'o  Tui,  toe  fanau  'o  Tui.  A  fai 
'o  le  alo  o  Tui  ai  e  tali  'atoa  le  selau  o  lenei 
vao  Tui.  Ona  'avea  ai  lea  e  Tuisamau  ma 
ona  uso  o  le  a  o  e  tufa  le  vao  Tui. 


The  eldest  son  they  named  King-of-Manu'a, 
and  the  maiden  was  named  Shade-of- 
Manu'a,  but  nameless  was  the  little  maid. 
Then  came  along  he  who  made  the  things 
to  eat,  Alamisi ;  he  went  to  the  Shade  of- 
Manu'a.  Then  King  was  bom,  again 
King  was  born,  again  King  was  bom. 
When  the  birth  of  Kings  was  accomplished 
belike  there  was  pretty  near  a  hundred  in 
this  grove  of  Kings.  They  were  carried 
away  by  King-fast-fixed  and  his  brethren 
who  were  to  go  to  allot  this  grove  of  Kings. 


The  context  shows  that  this  employment  of  Tui  absolute  is  regarded 
as  merely  anticipatory,  for  the  voyage  goes  on  to  set  these  kings  in 
Tonga  and  Fiji  and  other  lands  of  Nuclear  Polynesia.  The  designation 
is  never  used  vocatively  in  address  in  the  absolute  form  but  is  replaced 
by  ali'i;  in  this  it  is  paralleled  by  the  English  use  of  earl  and  my  lord. 

86.  tui  to  sew;  Visayan  tahf  id. 

tui        Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Nine,  Uvea,  I  

Viti,  Maori,   Mangareva,   Pau-       tahi     Tagalog,  Visayan. 

motu,  Tahiti,  Marquesas.  |   jahit    Malay. 

kui       Hawaii.  I 


The  identification  is  not  so  close  as  most  of  those  in  this  series  and 
I  am  by  no  means  confident  of  its  validity ;  the  change  of  the  former 
vowel  is  rather  more  extensive  than  is  common  and  the  presence  of  the 
aspiration  in  the  Indonesian  is  difficult  to  account  for.  I  include  it  in 
this  series  more  through  generosity  than  from  conviction. 


87.  tulu  to  drip;  Subanu  tolo,  tolu  id.     P.  W.  425. 


tulu 
turu 


Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Niue. 
Viti,  Nukuoro,  Fotuna,  Maori,  Ra- 
panui,  Tahiti,  Mangareva. 
kulu      Hawaii. 


tolo 
tolu 
jurus 


Subanu,  Visayan. 

Subanu. 

Malay. 


tumu    Samoa. 


tumu  to  be  full;  Subanu  toman  id. 

I   jumu     Malay. 
toman  Subanu 


The  word  is  excessively  rare  in  Polynesian,  Samoa  alone  retains 
it;  but  the  identification  is  satisfactory. 


148 


THB   SUBANU. 


89.  uha  rain;  Visayan  olan  id.    P.  W.  322. 


uha 

Tonga,  Niue. 

ura 

Ende. 

ua 

Samoa,   Fakaofo,   Futuna, 

Uvea, 

hura 

Galela. 

Fotuna,  Nuguria,  Maori,  Ta- 

uran 

Tidore,  Pampangas,  Solor,  Sikka 

hiti,  Hawaii,  Rarotonga 

,  Mar- 

Minahassa,  Ambon,  Ceram. 

quesas,  Mangareva,  Rapanui, 

huran 

Baju. 

Manahiki,  Tikopia. 

haran 

Lariko. 

udha 

Vit. 

urana 

Ceram. 

uas 

Rotuma. 

hurani 
orana 

Teor. 

Malagasy. 

oha 

Bolanghitam. 

urano 

Ambon. 

usan 

Kayan. 

urang 

Bugis. 

uan 

Gah. 

urong 

Salibabo. 

huya 

Sula. 

udjan 

Togean,  Minahassa. 

ulah 

Amblaw. 

utchan 

Chamorro. 

ulan 

Gani,  Wahai,  Salu,  Timor, 

Tobo. 

otjan 

Bontoc  Igorot. 

Ambon,  Ceram,  Makian. 

hujan 

Malay,  Sandol. 

olan 

Visayan. 

uda 

Kaili,  Minahassa. 

hulan 

Liang,  Morella. 

udan 

Rotti,  Minahassa,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

ulane 

Awaiya,  Ambon. 

hudan 

Java. 

ulani 

Cajeli,  Caimarian. 

udama 

Matabello. 

hulani 

Batumerah. 

ut 

MiUe. 

ulano 

Minahassa. 

nu 

Uap. 

ulanu 

Bual. 

Only  in  a  few  spots  does  Indonesia  preserve  the  primal  stem  of  this 
word,  in  Menado  of  north  Celebes  and  in  Ceram,  and  with  the  minimum 
of  mutation  in  the  tongue  of  the  Kayans  in  North  Borneo,  a  region  of 
the  early  settlement  of  the  Malayan  races.  Beyond  these  few  points 
we  have  a  long  line  of  mutants  which  become  simple  of  comprehension 
when  we  observe  that  the  range  is  up  and  down  the  Ungual  column. 


90.  ufi  yam;  Subanu  ubi  an  edible  tuber.     P.  W.  316. 


ufi 

Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Niue,  Uvea, 

Aniwa,  Sikaiana,  Fotuna. 

ubi 

Malay,  Malagasy, 

Subanu 

uvi 

Viti. 

uvi 

Kayan. 

uwhi 

Maori. 

uwi 

Java,  Kisa,  Kolon 

Bima. 

uhi 

Nukuoro,     Maori,     Moiki,     Tahiti, 

obi 

Visayan,  Tagalog. 

Hawaii,    Mangareva,   Rapanui, 

ove 

Kayan. 

Paumotu,  Marquesas. 

ovy 

Malagasy. 

ui 

Mangaia,  Rarotonga. 

In  the  Indian  archipelago  the  sense  lacks  specific  character;  it  is 
the  yam  where  that  plant  occurs;  elsewhere  it  is  the  sweet  potato;  in 
other  cases  it  is  defined  as  an  edible  tuber  in  general.  But  there  can 
be  no  doubt  about  the  identity  of  the  word. 


91.  uila  lightning;  Subanu  guilat  id.  P.  W.  345. 


uhila 

Tonga,  Niue,  Uvea. 

uila 

Kisa. 

uila 

Samoa,  Fakaofo,  Futuna,  Sikaiana, 

kuilat 

Pani. 

Nuguria,  Rarotonga,  Hawaii. 

quilat 

Visayan 

uira 

Tahiti,  Mangaia,  Maori,  Nukuoro, 

kuirlat 

Tagalog 

Rapanui,  Manahiki,  Moriori. 

guilat 

Subanu. 

uia 

Marquesas. 

chalirit 

Java. 

liva 

Viti. 

kila 

Tidore. 

kilat 

Malay. 

POLYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN. 


149 


92.  uli  to  steer;  Visayan  olin  id. 
uli    Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Uvea,  Viti. 

The  stem  appears  to  interlace  with  muli  the  stern,  in  which  case 
we  shall  regard  the  m  of  the  latter  as  possessing  coefficient  value. 

93.  ulu  the  head;  Subanu  golo  id. 


Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna,  Uvea,  Niue, 

Viti,  Manahiki,  Fakaofo. 
Maori,   Tahiti,   Mangaia,    Paumotu, 

Aniwa. 


Nggela,  Bugotu. 


ulu 
uru 

ulu 

ulu     Salayer,  Awaiya,  Caimarian,  Kissa, 

Chamorro. 
ulun  Wayapo. 
olo      Visayan,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

The  g  of  Subanu  golo  is  the  noun-formative  prefix  characteristic  of 
that  speech. 

94.  uta  to  pay;  Visayan  otang  debt.     P.  W.  249. 

uta  Niue. 

utu  Maori,  Marquesas,  Paumotu. 

utua  Tahiti. 

uku  Hawaii. 


golo 

Subanu. 

olun 

Massaratty. 

olum 

Cajeli. 

ulo 

Magindano,  Tagalog 

ulura 

Batumerah. 

ulure 

Wahai. 

ulukatim 

Ahtiago. 

ulin 

Teor. 

yulln 

Tobo. 

uru 

Lariko,  Saparua. 

uruka 

Liang,  Morella. 

utang    Malay,  Tagalog. 
otang    Visayan,  Bontoc  Igorot. 


There  is  a  vowel  difference  between  the  Tongafiti  and  the  Proto- 
Samoan,  the  latter  being  in  better  accord  with  our  few  identifications 
from  Indonesia. 

95.  uti  penis;  Visayan  otin  id.     P.  W.  431. 


uti 

Viti. 

usu 

Lalinau. 

ule 

Samoa,  Tonga, 

Niue,  Hawaii. 

usina 

Kabadi. 

ure 

Maori,    Rapan 

ui,    Tahiti, 

Manga- 

us 

Pala. 

reva,  Paumotu. 

u 

Bongu. 

Marquesas. 

oe 

— 

uti 

Rotti,     Timor,     Ambon, 

uti 

Efate,  Barriai, 

Emsau. 

Gorontalo,  Bunda. 

utid 

Siassi . 

wuti 

Gorontalo,  Bunda. 

oti 

Ninigo. 

otin 

Visayan,  Tagalog. 

otin 

Saran. 

oti 

Bontoc  Igorot. 

witin 

Siassi. 

utien 

Tuburuasa. 

gudin 

Tami. 

butu 

Lombok. 

kutira 

Kilengge. 

wota 

Savu,  Sumba. 

uting 

Lihir. 

us 

Karas. 

ut 

Lemusmus. 

ul 

Lamotrek. 

usi 

Motu. 

Ceram, 


We  have  here  a  tangle  of  forms,  uH,  ule,  use,  which  we  may  by  no 
means  confidently  reduce  to  a  common  stem;  of  these,  uti  occurs  but 
once,  yet  significantly,  in  Polynesia;  it  occupies  a  moiety  of  Melanesia, 
and  is  the  dominant  form  in  Indonesia.  The  second  Melanesian  form 
use  is  not  detected  in  Polynesia  at  all  and  occurs  but  once  in  our  Malayan 
record.  The  Tongafiti  ule  is  totally  absent  from  Melanesia  and  Indo- 
nesia, but  recurs  slightly  beyond  the  Malay  Archipelago  in  Lamotrek. 


150 


THE   SUBANU. 


96.  vaka  boat;  Visayan  bangca  id. 


vaka 


vaga 

waka 

wangga 

wanga 

vak 

va'a 

vaa 

waa 

va 

ak 

vaka 

vako 

vago 

vanga 

vak 

vuak 

vuok 

buak 

waka 

waga 


oaga 
wage 
wangga 


Tonga,  Futuna,  Niue,  Uvea,  Faka- 
ofo,  Rapanui,  Paumotu,  Manga- 
reva,  Marquesas,  Mangaia,  Raro- 
tonga,  Manahiki,  Tauu,  Nuguria, 
Sikaiana,  Nukumanu,  Aniwa. 

Nuguria. 

Sikaiana,  Maori. 

Viti. 

Aniwa. 

Nukumanu. 

Samoa,  Anuda. 

Tahiti,  Marquesas. 

Hawaii. 

Liueniua. 

Rotuma. 


Suau,  Vaturanga,  Ngela,  Savo, 
Bugotu,  Ngao,  New  Georgia. 

Vokau. 

Vokau,  Vrinagol. 

Alite. 

Amge. 

Malol. 

Sissano. 

Ser. 

Tobadi,  Ingrau,  Entsau,  Suau, 
Galavi,  Boniki,  Mukawa. 

Barriai,  Kobe,  Kilengge,  Jawna, 
Jeubi,  Bo,  Bisapu,  Palabong, 
Mugula,  Sariba,  Tubetube, 
Panaieti,  Tagula,  Nada,  Dobu, 
Kiriwina,  Taupota,  Wedau, 
Galavi. 

Kabakaul. 

Ingros,  Nakudukuda,  Kalil. 

Nakanai,  Vitu,  Kambangerim. 


oangga 

To. 

wanga 

Epi,  Arag. 

woga 

Pire,  Namarodu,  Matantuduk. 

wogo 

Labur. 

wang 

Lambon,  Mimias. 

wak 

Graget. 

warn 

Tavara,  Awalama,  Taupota. 

wa 

Menukwari,  Mokmer,  Pom,  Ansus, 

Wuvulu,  Oleai,  Wedau,  Raqa, 

Kiviri,  Oiun. 

U§L 

Feis. 

wai 

Sorong,  Menukwari,  Mokmer. 

faka 

Fagani. 

haka 

Ulawa,  Wango,  Saa,  Bultilaha. 

hak 

Abutumete. 

aka 

Maewo,  Mota,  Dukeof  York,  Molot. 

age 

Molot. 

anggo 

Kait. 

anga 

Omba. 

ak 

Merlav,  Gog,  Lakon,  Sasar,  Vuras, 

Mosin,  Norbarbar. 

nak 

Aweleng. 

eka 

Lo. 

ok 

Pak,  Alo  Teqel,  Motlav. 

ong 

Volow. 

waga 

Wayapo,  Massaratty. 

waha 

Tobo. 

waa 

Cajeli,  Amblaw. 

haka 

Liang,  Morella,  Batumerah. 

banca 

Tagalog. 

bangca 

Visayan,  Pampangas. 

fangka 

Bontoc  Igorot. 

bunka 

Bouton. 

wangkang  Malay,  Macassar. 

wog 

Gani. 

The  great  wealth  of  intermediary  forms  derived  from  Melanesia, 
in  great  measure  from  the  industrious  efforts  of  Mr.  Ray  and  Captain 
Friederici  in  the  New  Guinea  region,  completes  the  chain  of  mutation 
through  the  three  oceanic  areas  and  leaves  little  to  be  said. 

97.  vae  leg;  Subanu  pa  id. 

vae  Samoa,  Fakaofo,  Tonga,  Futuna, 

Uvea,  Niue,  Rapanui,  Manga- 
reva,  Paumotu,  Tahiti,  Mar- 
quesas, Rarotonga,  Tonga- 
rewa,  Manahiki,  Aniwa. 

vee  Tonga. 

ve  Niue. 

wae  Hawaii,  Maori,  Sikaiana. 

yava        Viti. 


we  Mekeo. 

ae  Roro,  Pokau,  Doura,Kabadi,Motu, 

Suau,  Panaieti,  Dobu,  Tavara, 
Awalama,  Taupota,  Wedau. 

bai  Kiviri,  Oiun. 

hage-gunapa  Hula,  Keapara. 

ape  Roro. 

afe  Mekeo. 

ahe  Kobe. 

kae  Galavi,  Boniki,  Mukawa,  Sariba. 


kaikaie 

Tubetube. 

kaike 

Kiriwina. 

nae 

Bugotu. 

ne 

Graget. 

ai 

Barriai,  Kilengge 

aiyi 

Misima. 

we 

Makian. 

wain 

Ceram. 

ae 

Alfuro. 

ai 

Ambon. 

eei 

Aru. 

aien 

Ceram. 

eik 

Rotti. 

ike 

Ceram. 

akain 

Jabim. 

agen 

Siassi. 

paa 

Kolon,  Visayan. 

pa 

Subanu. 

POLYNESIAN   AND   MAI^AYAN.  151 

These  forms  in  Melanesia  and  Indonesia  are  so  obscure  that  it  will 
require  more  abundant  data  before  they  may  be  studied  with  a  sense  of 
security.  I  should  not  be  surprised  if  it  were  necessary  to  segregate 
several  stems  here  interlaced.  Our  present  task  is  to  extricate  from 
this  material  whatever  evidence  may  establish  the  fihation  of  theSubanu 
pa  and  the  Polynesian  word  for  foot  or  leg.  The  Niue  ve  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  direct  mutant  of  vae  through  Tongan  vee  with  crasis,  an 
interpretation  supported  by  direct  but  scanty  evidence  in  that  speech. 
On  the  other  hand  we  encounter  a  we  in  Melanesia  and  again  in  Indo- 
nesia; therefore  this  may  be  regarded  as  an  ancient  stem.  The  Viti 
yava  may  not  be  regarded  as  a  derivative  from  vae;  in  The  Polynesian 
Wanderings  at  page  319,  I  have  given  exhaustive  study  to  the  y-initial 
of  Viti;  the  presence  of  an  alternative  avae  in  Tahiti  points  to  the 
existence  of  an  early  ava  which  has  become  yava  in  Viti  and  in  the 
eastern  island  has  become  colored  by  the  greater  prevalence  of  vae;  for 
a  primal  ava  we  have  Melanesian  affiliates  in  ape  and  afe.  In  the  same 
area  we  pass  readily  to  hai,  which  may  be  comprehended  as  the  primal 
va  colored  by  the  neighboring  frequency  of  ae.  Having  abundant 
reason  to  regard  Viti  in  Polynesia  and  Subanu-Visayan  in  Indonesia  as 
preserving  archetypal  forms  of  speech,  we  need  have  no  hesitation  in 
establishing  a  primal  va,  with  which  pa  readily  affiliates. 

98.  pasa  to  speak;  Visayan  basa  to  read  aloud.     P.  W.  191. 


pasa  Nukuoro. 

paha  Mangareva. 

visau  Fotuna. 

vosa  Viti. 


vasa  Sesake. 
bosa  Nggela. 
baha    Tavara,  Awalama. 


basa     Malay,  Tagalog,  Visayan. 

At  intervals  I  have  deemed  it  better  to  interrupt  the  foregoing 
alphabetic  series  in  order  that  I  might  discuss  in  conjunction  a  group  of 
ten  similar  vocables.  In  all  that  has  gone  before  I  have  been  by  no 
means  chary  of  directing  our  attention  upon  the  psychological  factors 
which  function  these  linguistic  problems.  This  group  of  ten  vocables, 
lying  in  the  Polynesian  content  of  Melanesia  as  well  as  of  Indonesia,  must 
in  the  highest  degree  involve  the  psychology  of  the  arithmetic  of  the 
savage,  the  mathematics  of  fingers  and  toes  of  the  bare  man.  The 
physical  association  of  the  mathematics  and  the  mathematician  is  a 
matter  of  observation  and  recoi  d : 

In  counting  any  objects  that  can  not  be  held  in  the  hand  or  placed  in  a 
row  the  Kayan  (and  most  of  the  other  peoples)  bends  down  one  finger  for  each 
object  told  off  or  enumerated,  beginning  with  the  little  finger  of  the  right  hand, 
passing  at  six  to  that  of  the  left  hand,  and  then  to  the  big  toe  of  the  right  foot, 
and  lastly  to  that  of  the  left  foot.  (Hose  and  McDougall,  The  Pagan  Tribes 
of  Borneo,  vol.  2,  page  210.) 

There  we  have  the  basis  of  all  such  arithmetic  as  we  are  to  study 
in  this  work,  fingers,  one  hand,  two  hands,  the  whole  man — quinary, 
decimal,  and  vigesimal  numeration.     Through  a  black  mass  of  igno- 


152  THE  SUBANU. 

ranee,  savage  men  whose  minds  had  not  yet  devised  a  name  for  the 
result  when  to  one  they  added  another,  cuts  in  precise  knowledge  the 
migration  of  the  keen  Polynesian  race  with  its  equipment  of  a  perfect 
decimal  system.  We  can  readily  comprehend  how  their  gift  of  numbers 
was  welcomed  by  the  lowly  folk  whom  they  met  upon  their  course  to 
the  new  Pacific  home.  But  how  it  has  come  to  pass  that  the  Malayan 
folk,  a  race  of  at  least  equal  culture  attainments,  adopted  the  numerals 
of  the  fleeing  Polynesians  so  completely  is  for  the  present  a  mystery 
beyond  our  powers  of  solution.  Between  decimal  Polynesia  and  deci- 
mal Indonesia  we  shall  find  a  great  variety  of  adoption  by  the  rude  folk 
of  the  intervening  Melanesia.  We  shall  find  some  communities  which 
had  advanced  in  numeration  to  the  possession  of  names  for  one  and 
two  and  three,  to  which  a  few  had  added  four ;  five  seems  to  have  come 
as  a  distinctly  new  concept  to  the  most  of  them,  for  the  number  of  these 
languages  is  enormous  in  which  we  find  five  to  be  represented  by  the 
Polynesian  word  for  hand,  lima.  With  this  acquisition  two-thirds  of 
them  were  content,  the  remainder  third  adopted  the  Polynesian  desig- 
nation of  ten,  and  of  these  last  ambitious  folk  only  a  few  more  than  half 
assumed  the  names  of  the  intervening  digits. 

In  our  examination  of  this  Melanesian  arithmetic  we  shall  find 
it  convenient  to  follow  the  classification  presented  by  Prebendary 
Codrington  {The  Melanesian  Languages,  page  235)  and  continued  by 
Sidney  H.  Ray  (Cambridge  Anthropological  Expedition  to  Torres  Straits, 
vol.  Ill,  page  470). 

The  lowest  system  is  the  quinary.  In  Uni  and  Eromanga  we  find 
it  with  Polynesian  names  for  all  five  digits ;  in  Aneityum  with  Polyne- 
sian 1,2,5;  ill  Tanna  with  all  five  digits  Polynesian  and  10  represented 
by  5+5-  Bpi,  Paama,  and  Sesake  have  all  five  Polynesian  digits, 
10  =  2  X5 ;  the  intervening  digits  are  represented  by  i,  2,  3,  4,  not  addi- 
tive to  5  as  later  we  shall  frequently  find  them,  but  with  a  prefix,  la  in 
Sesake,  0  in  Bpi  and  Paama.  Efate  assumes  the  Polynesian  digits 
2,3>4,  5;  10  =  2X5;  the  intervening  digits  are  the  first  four  additive  to 
5.  6=5H-i. 

The  next  group  comprises  the  imperfect  decimals,  systems  which 
count  one  hand  to  5,  count  that  hand  plus  the  fingers  of  the  second  hand 
to  9,  and  possess  a  designation  for  10.  The  detailed  information  of  this 
class  may  be  epitomized  as  follows.  Unless  otherwise  noted  6  desig- 
nates the  type  of  all  the  digits  6  to  9. 

Amge.     Polynesian  4,  5.     6=1  and  suffix. 

Deni.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4.     6=1  and  suffix. 

Nifilole.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4.     6=1  and  prefix. 

Save.     Polynesian  i,  2,  4.     6=1  and  prefix. 

Lakon,  Pak,  Malekula.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5.     6=1  and  prefix. 

Lo,  Norbarbar,  Volow,  Motlav,  Mota,  Mosin,  Vuras,  Gog,  Merlav,  Maewo,  Ambrym,  Vitu, 

Marina.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  10.     6=1  and  prefix. 
Marina.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  10.     6=1  and  suffix,  7  =  1  and  prefix. 
Nakanai.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  9,  10,  20.     6=1  and  prefix. 
Barriai,  Kalil.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  10.     6  =  5  +  1. 
Kilengge.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  10.     6=1. 


POLYNESIAN  AND   MAI.AYAN.  153 

Murua.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5.     6=1. 

Rubi,  Sinaugoro.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5.     6  =  5+1. 

Longa.     Polynesian  2,  3,  4,  5.     6  =  5  +  1. 

Abutumete,  Aweleng.     Polynesian  4,  5,  10.     6  =  5  +  1. 

Kobe.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3.     Incomplete  list. 

Graget.     Polynesian  3,  4,  5.     6  =  5  +  1.     10=5X2. 

Panaieti  (below  10).     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5.     6  =  5  +  1.     10=2X1. 

(counting  tens).     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  9,  but  in  strange  disorder,  6  siwa  (9), 

7  on  (6),  8  pit  (7),  9  ata  (10). 
Misima  (below  10).     Polynesian  3,  4,  5.     6  =  5  +  1.     10  =  2X1. 

(counting  tens).     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  9,  but  in  disorder,  5  suwa  (9),  6  nima 

(5),  8  won  (6). 
Doiu-a.     Polynesian  I,  2,  3,  4,  5.     6  =  5  +  1.      io  =  ?2Xi. 
Mekeo.     Polj'nesian  i,  2,  4,  5.     6  =  5  +  1.     io  =  ?2Xi. 
Nada,  Kiriwina.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5.     6  not  given. 
Leng.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  6,  10.     7,  minus  3;  8,  minus  2;  9,  minus  i. 
Mouk.     Polj^nesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6.     7,  minus  3;  8,  minus  2;  9,  minus  i. 
Umre.     Polynesian  2,  3,  4,  10.     6,  minus  4;  7,  minus  3;  8,  minus  2;  9,  minus  i. 
Lent.     Polynesian  2,  3.     6,  minus  4;  7,  minus  3;  8,  minus  2;  9,  minus  i. 
Motu,  Kabadi,  Galoma,  Keakalo,  Pokau.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5.     6  =  2X3;  7  =  2X3  +  1; 

8=2X4;  9  =  2X4  +  1- 
Roro,  Waima.     Polynesian  i,  2,  4,  5.     6=2X3;  7  —  2X3  +  1;  8=2X4;  9  =  2X4+1. 
Hula,  Keapara.     Polj'nesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5.     6  =  2X3;  7=8  — i;  8  =  2X4;  9  =  io  — i. 

The  next  group  is  composed  of  the  languages  which  employ  the 
decimal  system.  Most  of  them  have  adopted  the  Polynesian  names  in 
full ;  these  are  Nggela,  Fagani,  Wango,  Saa,  Arag,  Ulawa,  Omba,  Laur, 
Lambell,  King,  Lamassa,  LikkiUkki,  Mafoor.  A  small  group,  two 
languages  in  the  Louisiades  and  two  in  the  Solomons,  employ  nine  Poly- 
nesian digits,  but  have  words  for  10  of  their  own;  these  are  Brierly 
Island  and  Tagula,  Bugotu  and  Nggao.  Vaturanga  uses  all  the  Poly- 
nesian digits  but  5,  and  New  Georgia  has  2,  5,  6,  9,  10. 

The  vigesimal  group  comprises  the  following  languages: 

Awalama,  Tavara,  Mukawa.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5.     6  =  5  +  1;  10  =  5X2. 

Nengone.     Polynesian  i,  2.     6  =  5  +  1.     10  =  2  Xsome thing  not  5. 

Raqa,  Kiviri,  Oiun.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5.     6  =  5  +  1. 

Dcbu.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  10.     6  =  5  +  1. 

Suau.     Polynesian  I,  4.     6=5  +  1. 

Sariba.     Polynesian  i,  4,  5.     6  =  5  +  1.     10  =  5X2. 

Tubetube.     Polynesian  1,4,  10.     6  =  5  +  1. 

Kubiri.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5. 

Mugula.     Polynesian  i,  4. 

Boniki,  Galavi.     Polynesian  i,  2,  5.     4  =  2X2;  6  =  5  +  1;  9=5+2X2;  10  =  5X2. 

Taupota.     Polj^nesian  i,  2,  3,  4,  5.     4,  6,  9,  10  as  Boniki. 

Wedau.     Polynesian  i,  2,  3.     4,  6,  9,  10  as  Boniki. 

Kwagila.     Polynesian  2.     4  =  2X2. 

Lifu.     Polynesian  I,  2,  5.     6  =  1+5;  10  =  2X5. 

With  this  presentation  of  the  varieties  of  notation,  we  may  next 
pass  to  the  study  of  the  primal  forms  and  mutation  forms  of  each  of  the 
ten  Polynesian  digits  as  presented  in  the  three  island  areas. 
99.  tasi  one;  Subanu  sa,  isa  id. 


I.  taha 

Tonga,  Nine. 

4- 

tai 

Rarotonga. 

2.  tasi 

Samoa,  Futuna,  Fakaofo, 

5- 

kasi 

Liueniua. 

Aniwa,  Moiki. 

6. 

kahi 

Hawaii. 

3.  tahi 

Tongarewa,  Uvea,  Rapanui, 

7- 

ta 

Rotuma. 

Mangareva,     Marque- 

8. 

ndua 

Viti. 

sas,  Tahiti,  Manahiki, 
Maori,  Sikaiana. 

9- 

a 

Pak  6,  Savo  6.* 

*In  many  instances  where  the  name  of  six  is  compacted  of  five  and  one  it  has  been 
possible  to  find  a  designation  for  one  simpler  than  is  in  use  for  that  digit  standing  by  itself. 


154 


THE   SUBANU. 


lO. 

II. 

12. 

14. 
15- 
16. 

17- 
18. 
ip- 
so. 
21. 
22. 

23- 

24. 

25- 

26. 

27. 
28. 


29. 
30. 

31- 
32. 
33- 
34- 
35- 
36. 
37- 
38. 
39- 
40. 
41. 
42- 
43- 
44. 

45- 
46. 

47- 
48. 

49- 
50. 
51- 
52. 
53- 
54- 
55- 
56. 
57- 
58. 
59- 
60. 
61. 
62. 
63 


a-ngaomo  Mekeo. 

a-buna        Galoma,  Keakalo. 

e-bweuna  Dobu. 

emoti  Tavara,  Awalama.Taupota. 

ere  Barriai. 

esega  Suau. 

ha  Waima. 

ha-momo  Waima,  Roro. 

hibeti  Moar. 

hu  Ambrym. 

ja  Deni. 

jea  Norbarbar  6. 

Jia  Lo. 

joser  Dasener. 

ka  Lifu,  Pokau,  Kabadi,  Hula. 

ka-una        Uni. 

ka-ona        Doura. 

kahe  Ngao. 

kai  Malekula. 

a.  takai  Lambell,  King. 

b.  tekai  Kalil,  Laur. 
kaigeda       Tubetube. 
kaita            Kubiri  6,  Kiviri  6. 
kaita-mom  Kubiri,  Kiviri. 

Lifu. 

Vitu. 

Vaturanga. 

Mukawa. 

Sariba. 

Masimasi. 

Hula. 

New  Georgia. 

Nifilole  6. 

Keapara. 

Nakukur,  Mioko. 

Tagula. 

Tanna. 

Nengone,  Onin. 

Boniki. 


kasi 

katsiu 

kesa 

kesana 

kesega 

kis 

ko-puna 

meke 

ngi 

o-buna 

ra 

rega 

riti 

sa 

sago 

sago-kava  Galavi 


sai 

sakai 

samosi 

se-bona 

sikai 

sikei 

simoksi 

siri 

ta 

ta-mona 

tagai 

tagogi 

tai 

tai-mona 

tai-monomon  Oiun. 

(tana) 

a.  a-tan-ok 

b.  koi-tan 

c.  e-tega 

d.  mai-sena 

e.  ke-sana 


Eromanga,  Mafoor. 

Nggela. 

Namatote,  Lobo. 

Sinaugoro. 

Sesake,  Malekula. 

Bugotu. 

Karufa. 

Wandammen. 

Ulawa,  Saa,  Motu,  Rubi. 

Motu. 

Fagani. 

Wedau. 

Epi,  Paama,  Wango. 

Raqa. 


Nada. 
Murua. 
Panaieti. 

Panaieti,  Misima. 
Mukawa. 


64.  tara 


Kobe. 


65. 

66. 
67. 


68. 
69. 
70. 

71- 

72. 

73- 
74- 
75- 
76. 

77- 


78. 
79- 
80. 
81. 
82. 

83. 
84. 

85- 
86. 
87. 
88. 
89. 
90. 


tasa 
tata 
te 


tea 

tega 

tes 

tesa 

tewa 

teya 

thi 

tia 

paihe-tia 

tika 

a.  tik 

b.  ti 
toa 
towa 
towal 
tsitsi 
tukse 
tuwa 
tuwal 
tuwale 
tuwel 
twa 
twag 
wal 


Nakanai. 

Mohr. 

Gog  6,  Vuras  6,  Mosin  6, 

Motlav    6,    Volow    6, 

Tami. 
Marina,  Maewo  6,  Mota  6. 
Panaieti,  Misima. 
Jamna,  Kubamba. 
Efate,  Sesake. 
Maewo. 
Mugula. 
Aneityum. 
Merlav  6. 
Brierly  Island. 
Pala. 

Lamassa. 

Likkilikki. 
Buka. 
Norbarbar. 
Mosin. 
Vitu. 
Tarfia. 
Lakon,  Arag. 
Gog. 

Merlav,  Mota,  Omba. 
Vuras. 
Volow. 
Motlav. 
Pak. 
Waropin. 


91.  esa 

92.  hasa 

93.  hia 

94.  isa 

a.  lai  isa 

b.  isa  iray 

95.  isai 

96.  itja 

97-  ja 

98.  ji 

99.  kusa 
100.  lepso 
loi.  nehe 

102.  nosiuno 

103.  osa 

104.  osso 

105.  sa 


106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
no. 
III. 
112. 

113- 
114. 

115- 
116. 
117. 


saangu 

sabi 

sali 

san 

satu 

sedri 

sembaow 

silei 

so 

soboto 

umsiun 

wasa 


Saparua,  Ahtiago,  Menado. 

Tihu,  Mahuan. 

Sulu. 

Lariko,     Subanu,     Bon  toe 

Igorot. 

Awaiya. 

Malagasy. 
Caimarian. 
Bima. 
Punan. 
Kay  an. 
Sanguir. 
Gani. 
Iliwdki. 
Massaratty. 
Visayan,  Kolon. 
Dorey. 
Java,  lyiang,  Morella,  Mata- 

bello,  Baju,  Subanu. 
Bouton. 
Amblaw. 
Wahai. 
Teluti,  Tobo. 
Malay. 
Salayer. 
Salibabo. 
Cajeli. 
Gah. 

Bolanghitam. 
Wayapo. 
Batumerah. 


This  we  find  to  be  the  most  compHcated  of  all  these  numerals ;  even 
upon  such  dissection  into  the  elements  as  we  may  perform  we  shall  still 
find  a  score  of  stems  which  in  one  speech  or  in  another  may  be  regarded 


POLYNESIAN  AND  MALAYAN.  155 

as  primal.  Yet  we  may  establish  two  major  groups  of  usage  in  all  this 
intricacy.  In  languages  purely  Polynesian  we  shall  find  the  system  of 
determinant  compounds  in  order  to  establish  precision  of  the  numerical 
statement  of  unity ;  in  languages  where  the  Polynesian  has  been  taken 
up  more  or  less  completely  with  the  adoption  of  a  system  of  arithmetic 
thitherto  unknown,  we  shall  find  most  frequently  simple  stems  and  less 
commonly  composites  of  the  Polynesian  system.  In  yet  other  lan- 
guages, those  in  which  some  slight  system  of  counting  existed  yet  had 
not  arrived  at  the  stage  of  an  arithmetic,  we  shall  find  the  Polynesian 
stem  affixed  as  a  precise  member  to  the  vernacular  word  which  had  been 
in  some  manner  of  use. 

The  class  of  determinant  compounds  is  one  which  I  found  it  neces- 
sary to  estabHsh  for  the  designation  of  one  very  important  factor  in 
the  usage  of  these  languages  of  isolation,  that  factor  which  by  filling  the 
speech  with  dissyllables  of  precision  renders  it  inadvisable  to  use  the 
older  designation  of  this  as  the  monosyllabic  type  of  speech.* 

Simultaneously  there  operates  a  yet  more  rudimentary  principle. 
In  composition  we  are  dealing  with  syllables  established  in  some  sort  of 
signification.  With  the  syllables  as  roots  we  pursue  our  dissection  yet 
further  to  the  seeds  of  speech ;  we  examine  their  variety  through  the  co- 
efficient value  of  their  consonant  modulants.f  I  shall  not  here  prose- 
cute in  full  these  two  interacting  forces,  for  three  particularly  pertinent 
examples  will  serve  to  establish  the  method  and  thereafter  there  will  be 
no  difficulty  in  following  it  onward  through  the  matter  here  assembled. 

The  first  seven  items  of  the  foregoing  tabulation  cover  the  word 
for  one  in  all  Polynesian  languages,  and  it  is  apparent  on  inspection  that 
we  have  to  do  with  three  elements,  ta  absolute  in  Rotuma,  prefixed  to  a 
stem  sa  in  Tonga  and  Nine,  to  a  stem  si  in  the  remainder  of  Polynesia. 
Furthermore  we  find  that  sa  and  si  have  one  element  in  common,  the 
consonantal  modulant  prefixed ;  its  coefficient  value  is  the  same  in  the 
two  cases ;  therefore  such  distinction  as  may  be  found  to  exist  inheres 
in  the  varying  element,  the  vowel.  Our  minute  studies  of  these  lan- 
guages show  us  that  the  basic  value  of  these  vowel  demonstratives  is 
that  of  relation  in  regard  of  the  speaker,  of  the  thinking  mind  finding 
speech  expression — a  relation  which  in  its  simplest  terms  is  that  of  posi- 
tion. I  shall  not  here  repeat  the  evidence  upon  which  this  is  based; 
it  is  readily  accessible  in  the  paper  last  cited;  the  conclusion  is  that  a 
comes  from  the  mouth  to  supplement  the  speech  of  the  pointing  finger 
for  the  purpose  of  indicating  something  remote,  i  something  nearer. 
As  yet  the  category  of  number  has  not  come  into  being ;  therefore  a  and 
i  refer  to  the  many  or  the  one  alike.  But  as  the  need  is  felt  for  dis- 
tinction between  the  one  and  the  more  than  one  a  consonant  is  appHed. 
How  the  selection  of  the  consonant  modulant  is  made  is  not  wholly 

*"  Principles  of  Samoan  Word  Composition,"  14  Journal  Polynesian  Society,  40. 
f'Root  Reducibility  in  Polynesian,"  27  American  Journal  of  Philology,  369. 


156  THE  SUBANU. 

beyond  our  comprehension.  In  these  studies  I  have  dwelt  at  some 
length  upon  the  two  limits  of  speech  expression  for  each  of  the  buccal 
organs,  the  employment  of  the  least  speech  effort  and  of  the  maximum. 
At  the  minimum  for  the  tongue  lies  S  (h) ;  at  the  maximum  t.  Consider 
now  the  case  of  the  beginning  speaker  into  whose  intellectuaUty  has 
come  some  faintly  appreciated  need  of  specifying  his  diffuse  a  yonder 
and  particularizing  that  it  is  one  object.  He  employs  the  minimum 
speech  effort  in  the  central  lingual  area  and  produces  thereby  sa;  its 
sense  is  still  general  in  particularity  *  *  a  yonder. ' '  In  like  manner,  when 
he  wishes  to  distinguish  which  of  several  to  each  of  which  "a  yonder" 
might  apply,  the  effort  of  mind  is  followed  by  effort  of  speech;  he 
employs  the  maximum,  ta  is  particular  and  unmistakable  "  this  yonder." 
In  like  manner  we  find  i  with  the  same  pair  of  coefficients  producing  the 
same  result,  si ''a.  here,"  ti  "this  here."  The  four  forms  are  not  merely 
theoretical  and  diagrammatic ;  they  occur  somewhere  in  the  Polynesian 
languages  in  exactly  these  senses  and  are  readily  discoverable.  We 
thus  see  how  our  three  elements  of  Polynesian  words  for  one  arise. 

Now  we  pass  to  the  compaction  of  these  established  elements.  I 
have  said  that  a  and  i  stand  to  the  speaker  in  some  relation  of  position. 
At  the  beginning  of  such  speech  it  is  sufficient  to  express  a  concept  as 
away  from  the  speaker,  more  as  a,  less  as  i.  This  remoteness  may  be 
in  place,  it  may  equally  be  in  time,  and  in  time  it  may  be  equally 
time  before  or  past,  time  to  come  or  future;  we  shall  find  the  need 
arising  for  particularity  in  this  item  also  and  by  the  like  method  of 
consonantal  modulants.  But  at  a  certain  stage  of  the  speech  develop- 
ment sa  with  si  in  one  group  and  ta  in  another  were  applicable  in  many 
senses  just  beginning  to  particularize  in  use.  Then,  as  further  need  of 
precision  arose,  there  developed  the  device  of  determinant  composition. 
For  the  argument  let  us  assume  that  ta  has  four  significations  including 
"this  yonder,"  sa  has  other  four  including  "a  yonder."  By  employing 
in  conjunction  the  two  stems  of  several  meanings  we  obtain  a  vocable  in 
which  the  two  stems  agree  upon  the  common  significations;  ta  plus  sa 
can  mean  only  "this  yonder,"  for  it  has  the  force  of  double  insistence. 
Thus  we  obtain  taha  in  the  sense  of  unity.  In  like  manner  we  may 
trace  the  growth  of  tasi. 

As  between  the  two  forms  we  note  in  Polynesia  that  taha  is  found 
in  Tonga  and  Nine;  it  occurs  more  or  less  through  Melanesia;  its  ele- 
ment sa  is  the  most  common  in  Indonesia.  We  may  safely  attribute 
this  form  to  the  Proto-Samoan  migration,  tasi  to  the  Tongafiti  swarm; 
yet  the  evidence  of  ja  in  the  Punan  and  ji  in  the  Kayan,  both  archetypal 
languages  in  north  Borneo,  warrants  the  belief  that  the  elemental  sa 
and  si  may  have  existed  concurrently  at  the  earliest  period. 

We  shall  now  present  the  type  forms  of  the  word  for  unity  in  the 
three  oceanic  areas,  listing  in  the  three  columns  the  occurrences  of  each 
type  form  as  used  absolutely,  as  prefix,  as  suffix, 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN. 


157 


1.  sa. 


sa45,  105.  sa-go  46,  47 

ke-sa  34 

ra  42 

la-i  94a 

ta-ra  64 

sa-kai  49 

ta-sa  65 

ha  16 

ha-momo  17 

ta-ha  I 

sa-raosi  50 

te-sa  71 

ha-sa  92 

sa-angu  106 

e-sa  91 

a9 

a-ngaomo  10 

te-a  68 

sa-bi  107 

ha-sa  92 

a-buna  11 

ti-a  75,  76 

sa-li  108 

ku-sa  99 
i-sa  94 
o-sa  103 

a-tan-ok  63a 

to-a  78 
hi-a  93 
je-a  21 

sal  48 

i-sai  95 

ii. 

ta. 

ji-a  22 

ta  7.  56 

ta-ha  I 

kai-ta  30 

ta-ra  64 

ta-si  2 

kai-ta-mom  3 1 

ta-sa  65 

ta-hi  3 

ta-ta  66 

ta-i  4,  60 

ja  20,  97 

i-tja  96 

ta-mona  57 

tai  4,  60 

tai-mona  61 

ta-gai  59 

tai-monomon 

62 

ta-gogi  58 

iii. 

ka. 

ka  34 

ka-una  25 
ka-ona  26 
ka-he  27 
ka-si  5,  32 
ka-tsiu  33 
ka-hi  6 

se-bona  5 1 
se-dri  iii 
se-mbaow  112 

ne-he  loi 

ti-ka  77 

ka-he  51 
ne-he  101 

iv. 

V. 

kai  28 

se. 

lai  94a 

te. 

kai-geda  29 
kai-ta  30 
kai-tamom  31 

e-bweuna  12 
e-moti  13 
e-re  14 
e-sega  15 
e-tega  63c 
e-sa  91 

ta-gai  58 
sa-kai  49 
si-kai  52 
si-kei  53 

e-re  14 
si-lei  113 

te67 

te-a  68 
je-a  21 
te-sa  70 

ke-sa  34 
ke-sana  35 

me-ke  39 

vi. 
vii. 

ke. 
si. 

te-wa  72 
tes  70 

ke-sega  36 
kis37 

si-ri  55 

ta-si  2 

i-sa  94 

sa-i  48 

si-lei  113 

ka-si  5,  32 
wo-sio  90 
um-siun  u 

6 

i-sai  95 
i-tja  96 

ta-i  4,60,61,62 

kai  28,  29,  30, 

31.  49.  52, 

no-siuno  102       | 

53.58 

ko-i  63b 

hi-a  93 

ta-hi  3 

ma-i  63d 

hi-beti  18 

ka-hi  6 

viii. 

Ii. 

la-i  94 

ngi  40 

ri-ti  44 
ti-a  75.  76 

sa-li  108 
sa-bi  107 

ri-ti  44 

ix. 

ti. 

thi  74 

si-ri  55 
se-dri  III 

ti-ka  77 

hibe-ti  18 

tsi  81 

tsi-u  33 

tu-kse  82 

ji98 

ji-a  22 

158 

THE   SUBANU. 

X.  so. 

so  114        so-boto  115 
o-buna  41 

os-so  104 
lep-so  100 

o-sa  103 
wo-sio  90 

xi.  to. 

to-a  78 
to-wa  79 
to-wale  80 

sobo-to  115 

jo-ser  23 

xii.  ko. 

ko-puna  38 

sa-go  46,  47         I 

xiii.  tu. 

koi-tan  63b 

tu-kse  82 
tu-wa  83 
tu-wal  84 
tu-wale  85 

sa-tu  no 

hu 

19 

tu-wel  86 
ndu-a  8 

ku-sa  99 


xiv.  ku. 


XV.  wa. 


ta-gogi  59 


wa-sa  117 
wal  89 

te-wa  72 
to-wa  79 
tu-wa  83 
t-wa  87 
t-wag  88 
to-wal  80 

xvi.  1 

7ona. 

tu-wal  84 
tu-wel  86 
tu-wale  85 

ndu-a 

se-bona  51 

a-buna  11 

e-bweuna  12 

ko-puna  38 

ta-mona  57 
ka-ona  25 

tai-mona  61 
ka-una  20 

xvii. 

misc 

tai-monomon  62 
ha-momo  17 

ellaneous. 

a-ngaomo  10 
kaita-mom3i 

ke-sana  35 
koi-tan  63b 
rega  43 
mai-sena  63  d 

mai-sena  63d 
e-sega  15 
tega  69 
me-ke  39 

san  109 

ke-sega  36 
e-tega  636 
sa-mosi  50 

a-tan-ok  63a 
sago  46,  47 
kai-geda  29 
si-moksi  54 

e-moti  13 
joser  23 

sa-angu  106 
sago-kava  47 

ta-gogi  59 
no-siuno  102 

iray  94 
sembaow  112 

ya  73 

One  form  in  the  Polynesian  area  remains  unexplained,  Viti  ndua. 
It  is  not  wholly  easy  to  arrive  at  a  decision  upon  this  point.  Under- 
lying its  Polynesian  element  of  later  settlement,  Viti  contains  a  large 
element  of  speech  affiliated  somewhat  indefinitely  in  hither  Melanesia, 
If  we  assume  this  ndua  to  belong  to  the  Melanesian  element  we  find  it 
immediately  associable  with  the  tuwa-towa  forms  found  in  the  Banks 
Group  and  adjacent  northern  New  Hebrides.  Yet  in  islands  of  the 
same  region  we  encounter  a  tuwale  form  and  in  the  present  lack  of  infor- 
mation on  these  tongues  we  may  not  venture  upon  dissection.  On  the 
other  hand  the  thirteenth  item  of  the  preceding  tabulation  will  show 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN 


159 


that,  though  rare,  tu  does  exist  in  Melanesia  and  in  Indonesia  in  the 
sense  of  one ;  therefore  it  might  be  possible  to  regard  ndu-a  as  a  deter- 
minant compound  after  the  Polynesian  fashion. 

ICO.  rua  two;  Subanu  dua  id. 


rua  Tahiti,  Rarotonga,  Viti,  Rotuma, 

Maori,  Mangareva,  Rapanui, 
Tongarewa,  Aniwa,  Sikaiana. 

lua  vSamoa,    Fakaofo,    Uvea,    Hawaii, 

Manahiki,  Liueniua. 

ua  Tonga,  Niue,  Marquesas. 

ru  Moriori. 


do  Save. 

dui  Mafoor. 

dua  Sesake. 

duru        Eromanga. 

ewuru     Lambell. 

huo         Leng. 

aqa-iu     Nada. 

qe-yu      Murua. 

lu  Paama  7,  Kumamba. 

pa-lu       Nggao. 
lua  Epi,  Paama,  Lifu  17,  Kowamerara, 

Koko,  Nakanai,  Kilengge,  Po- 
kau,  Doura,  Sinaugoro,  Hula, 
Keapara,  Galoma,  Keakalo. 
lue  Lifu,  Mouk. 

luaga       Tavara. 
mondu   Wandammen. 
nuwa      Onin. 

ngua       Mekeo. 
Nengone. 
Tagula. 

Aneityum,     Ambrym     7,     Vuras, 
Mosin  7,  Motlav,  Volow,  Nor- 
barbar,  Savo. 
a-rho      Tarfia. 
ro-waba  Oiun. 
Nokon. 

Efate,    Tanna,    Eromanga,    Am- 
brym, Gog,  Lakon,  Pak,  Moar, 
Jamna,  Masiraasi,  Mosin,  No- 
kon. 
King. 
Lamassa. 
Likkilikki. 
Efate. 
Barriai,  Kalil,  Kobe,  Vitu,  Marina, 
Maewo,    Merlav,    Mota,    Lo, 
Arag,  Ulawa,  Saa,  Wango,  Fa- 
gani,  Nggela,  Nguna,  Bugotu, 


rewe 

reu 

ro 


roa 
ru 


a-ru 
e-ru 
i-ru 
nru 


ruabi 
ruaga 

ruam 
ruamo 


New  Georgia,  Waima,  Roro, 

Kabadi,  Motu,  Panaieti,  Mi- 

sima,  Galavi,  Boniki,  Dobu. 

Raqa. 

Awalama,   Taupota,   Wedau, 

Galavi. 

Kwagila,  Kiviri. 

Mukawa. 
rue  Omba,  Laur. 

rue-iti     Karufa,  Namatote. 
rue-ti      Lobo. 
ruka        Vaturanga. 
rumo      Umre. 
rflo  Longa. 

wo-ruo  Waropin. 
ruru        Mohr. 
rusi         Tandia,  Kubiri. 
su-ru       Dorey,  Dasener. 
ua  Malekula. 

i-ua         Kiriwina. 
wo  Brierly  Island. 

wuaa       Rubi. 


dia  Bolanghitam. 

doha       Visayan. 

drua        Mahuan. 

dua  Malay,  Sirang,  Sumbawa,  Matu, 

Sanguir,  Salibabo,  Lariko, 
Kayan,  Piman,  Pampangas, 
Ilocano,  Baju,  Subanu,  Bon- 
toc  Igorot. 

dudua     Menado. 

duoh       Dusim. 

ga-hu     Sulu. 

lo-tu       Gah. 

lu  Mysot. 

lep-lu      Gani. 

lua  Cajeli,  Amblaw,  Morella,  Batume- 

rah,  Caimarian,  Teluti,  Tobo, 
Ahtiago,  Wahai,  Mame,  Tihu, 
IHwaki. 

luua        Awaiya 

roa  Malagasy. 

rua  Salayer,  Wayapo,  Massaratty,  Li- 

ang, Saparua,  Matabello,  Teor, 
Lampong,  Timor,  Aru. 

ruano      Bouton. 

Nothing  in  this  hst  need  detain  us ;  the  afiiUation  is  clear  and  each 
mutation  is  supported  in  at  least  two  of  the  oceanic  regions .  The  general 
stage  of  the  name  for  two  is  a  composite,  in  the  majority  of  cases  a  com- 
paction of  readily  comprehensible  mutants  of  ru  and  of  a,  in  all  other 
cases  of  rw-mutants  with  some  other  element.  In  the  composites  we 
see  that  in  carries  in  itself  the  sense  of  two;  we  find  it  persisting  in 
absolute  use  in  Indonesia,  frequently  in  Melanesia,  in  Polynesia  in 
Moriori,  which  may  be  established  as  a  primal  phase  of  the  Polynesian 
in  the  Pacific. 


160 


THE   SUBANU. 


loi.  tolu  three;  Subanu  tolo  id. 


tolll         Samoa,     Niue,     Futuna,     Tonga, 

Uvea,  Fakaofo,  Viti. 
toru         Tahiti,  Rarotonga,  Manahiki,  Ma- 
ngareva,  Rapanui,  Maori,  Ani- 
wa,  Sikaiana. 
Rotuma. 
Marquesas. 
Hawaii,  Liueniua. 
Rotuma. 


koi 

roi 

oi 
e-talo 
tal 
tau 
taur 
tel 
sil 
kior 

tulu-mo  Umre 
tuwru  Lobo. 
turu-si 
tul 
tun 
sul 


Uni,  Pokau,  Doura,   Kabadi, 

Hula. 

Malekula. 

Keapara,  Galoma,  Keakalo. 
Mouk. 
Norbarbar. 
Jamna. 
Kumamba. 

Lakon,  Motlav,  Volow. 
Eromanga. 
Mafoor. 


Tandia. 

Nok6n,  Laur,  Likkilikki. 

Misima,  Oiun. 

Ambrym. 


tolu         Mame,  Matabello. 

a-tlu       Pampangas. 
toru         Saparua. 
tol  Mysot. 

tolo         Subanu,    Visayan,    Timor, 
Wahai,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

ta-tlo      Tagalog. 
toro         Bolanghitam,  Lariko. 
to  Sulu. 

talu         Java,  Sam. 

te-talu    Salibabo. 
talau       Matu. 
klau        Champa. 
tauro      Formosa. 
telu         Tihu,  Iliw^ki,  Mahuan. 

telua       Batumerah. 


Gah, 


thol 
tou 
kolu 
folu 

tolu         Efat6,  Epi,  Paama,  Omba,  Arag, 

Nggela,    Vaturanga,    Nguna, 

Nggao,  Bugotu,  Nok6n,  Na- 

kanai,  Vitu,  Leng,  Kiriwina. 
dolu        Sesake. 
c-tlu       Longa. 
toru         Kowamerara,  Koko,  Dasener,Wan- 

dammen,  Namatote. 
tohru      Karufa. 
torua      Lakahia. 
tonu        Mukawa,  Kubiri,  Kiviri. 

tonu-ga  Tavara,  Awalama,  Taupota, 

Wedau. 
tou  Marina  8,  Masimasi,  Moar. 

•olu         Ulawa,  Saa. 
*oru         Wango,  Fagani. 
•ol  Pak. 

tol  Marina,    Maewo,    Merlav,    Gog, 

Vuras,  Mosin,  Mota,  Norbar- 
bar, Barriai,  Kalil,  King,  La- 

massa,  Kilengge,  Graget. 
i-tol         Lamassa,  Kobe. 
tor  Tarfia. 

tola         Nok6n,  Nada. 
tolo  Paama  8. 

oro  Mohr. 

woro       Waropin. 
toni        Raqa. 
ton  Murua,  Panaieti. 

toi  Motu,  Sinaugoro,  Rubi,  Dobu. 

In  this  ordering  of  the  data  we  find  such  a  smooth  series  of  muta- 
tion that  we  have  no  difficulty  in  including  so  remote  a  variant  as  the 
toi  series  of  Torres  Strait.  To  what  extent  these  aliens  have  debased 
the  Polynesian  currency  in  their  borrowing  is  strangely  shown  in  the 
Motu  lakatoi,  Polynesian  vaka  boat  and  tolu  three ;  yet  in  the  ceremonial 
voyages  across  the  Gulf  of  Papua,  in  the  annual  barter  of  pots  for  sago, 
they  lash  three  hulls  abeam  and  navigation  confirms  the  obscure  phi- 
lology. In  Malaysia  the  more  primitive  languages  employ  tolo  and  telo, 
but  the  pure  Polynesian  type  of  tolu  appears  in  a  sufficient  list  of  lan- 
guages to  estabUsh  its  persistence  in  this  area. 

I  am  now  prepared  to  offer  a  genetic  hypothesis  in  explanation  of 
this  tolu  three.  In  the  rigid  order  of  logical  development  of  any  such 
argument  this  should  follow  and  depend  upon  such  a  dissection  of  the 
inner  content  of  lua  two  as  I  have  been  able  to  demonstrate  in  the  case 
of  tasi  one.  Up  to  the  present,  that  clear  comprehension  of  the  primal 
signification  of  lua  has  eluded  my  study.  Yet  I  have  the  less  hesitation 
in  presenting  this  analysis  of  tolu  at  the  present  time  extra  ordinem 


telo 


tero 
tulu 


Punan,  Kayan,  Dusim,  Malagasy, 
Salayer,  Bouro,  Caimarian, 
Morella. 

Liang. 

Lampong,  Magindano. 


POLYNESIAN  AND  MALAYAN.  161 

because  I  feel  encouraged  to  hope  that  from  the  result  of  these  consider- 
ations we  may  be  able  at  some  later  period  to  return  to  the  considera- 
tion of  the  basic  lua  with  more  success  and  thereby  interpolate  its 
rational  explanation. 

In  these  studies  of  the  arithmetic  of  primitive  man  we  have  marked 
two  well-defined  stages.  The  Polynesian  has  attained  to  the  decimal 
system,  he  has  firmly  grasped  the  whole  initial  requirement  of  the 
science  of  mathematics,  he  has  the  material  equipment  for  all  those 
speciahzed  operations  of  number  which  are  to  be  acquired  from  the 
decimal  base  by  the  gradual  growth  of  knowledge  stimulated  by  the 
advancing  needs  of  life.  The  only  obstacle  which  withholds  from  the 
savage  Polynesian  the  facility  of  the  table  of  logarithms  is  that  the  need 
has  not  yet  appeared  in  his  life-condition  to  stimulate  his  mind  to  higher 
mathematical  activity  than  the  operations  of  addition  and  subtraction. 

In  the  introduction  to  this  study  of  the  numerals  I  have  pointed 
out  the  considerable  number  of  races  of  savage  men  within  the  oceanic 
district  of  my  province  who  have  not  yet  attained  to  the  faciUty  of  the 
decimal  system,  whose  numeration  is  quinary,  whose  finger  count  is 
limited  to  the  digits  of  a  single  hand.  In  the  dissection  of  the  quinary 
system  we  are  brought  face  to  face  with  a  yet  more  primitive  concept 
of  number  and  notation.  Because  it  is  primitive,  because  it  is  a  work- 
ing of  the  dawning  intelligence  struggling  with  the  comprehension  of 
dimly  perceived  needs  of  life,  where  effort  to  comprehend  involves  some 
effort  to  reproduce  and  to  confirm  by  speech  such  comprehension,  we 
shall  not  look  to  find  this  early  numeration  restricted  by  the  boundaries 
of  any  one  family  of  speech.  The  vocables  employed  in  such  expression 
may  vary  widely  between  family  and  family ;  the  principle  remains  con- 
stant.    We  are  engaged  at  first  with  psychology  rather  than  linguistics. 

Long  culture-ages  anterior  to  the  development  of  the  decimal  base 
which  we  possess  in  its  completely  acquired  form  in  our  Polynesian 
speech  the  quinary  system  is  found  as  a  halting  stage  of  progress  toward 
a  system  of  notation.  The  highest  development  of  the  quinary  system 
rests  in  the  possession  of  names  for  the  units  from  one  to  five.  This  is 
exhibited  in  the  language  of  Aneityum  where  the  numerals  are :  i,  e  ihi; 
2,  e  ro;  3,  e  seij;  4,  e  manowan;  5,  ikman;  and  no  words  exist  for  num- 
ber beyond  ikman,  which  I  have  shown  to  be  a  derivative  from  the 
common  lima  as  hand  and  five. 

A  stage  yet  more  primitive  is  represented  by  a  system  which  we 
may  continue  to  call  quinary  because  it  is  in  possession  of  a  word  which 
expresses  at  its  minimum  connotation  the  sum  of  the  digits  of  one  hand. 
It  differs  from  the  perfect  quinary  as  illustrated  in  Aneityum  in  the 
fact  that  instead  of  possessing  four  names  for  specific  number  below 
five  it  has  but  two.  We  thus  have  an  imperfect  quinary  of  three  terms. 
We  may  go  yet  lower  in  the  scale  and  find  a  numerical  system  of  but 
two  terms.     The  imperfect  quinary  of  three  terms  becomes  effectively 


162  THE   SUBANU. 

quinary  by  composition,  the  linguistic  equivalent  of  the  arithmetic  of 
simple  addition.  There  are  several  phases  of  such  addition-composi- 
tion but  here  it  will  suffice  to  illustrate  along  the  phase  of  the  type  i,  2, 
2  +  1,  2  +  2,  5.  This  I  recall  from  the  Australian  aboriginals  of  the 
NorthwestBend  of  the  Murray  River;  i,  nitshe;  2,  barcoola;  3,  harcoola- 
nitshe;  4,  barcoola-harcoola;  5,  yeniimarra. 

A  stage  lower  than  this  is  presented  by  the  numeration  which  has 
not  yet  set  five  apart  as  a  discrete  concept  even  without  precision. 
This  is  illustrated  among  others  by  the  Miriam  (apud  Ray)  of  Torres 
Straits.  It  has  but  two  numerals,  netat  1,  nets  2.  Higher  numbers  are 
but  sums  in  addition  of  these  two  primitives,  neis-netat  2  +  1=3,  wm- 
neis  2  +  2=4,  neis-neis-netat  2  +  2  +  1  =5,  neis-neis-neis  2  +  2+2  =  6. 

Without  prosecuting  further  this  research  these  examples  will  serve 
my  purpose  satisfactorily  in  showing  that  we  need  feel  no  surprise  if  in 
the  Polynesian  decimals  we  may  be  able  to  detect  a  composite  of  similar 
type.  At  the  beginning  of  the  sense  of  number  we  find  the  recognition 
of  the  distinction  between  the  one  and  the  more  than  one ;  the  division  is 
cut  along  the  cleavage  between  unity  and  plurality.  The  next  dichot- 
omy must  be  equally  simple ;  it  will  apply  to  the  plurality.  The  mind 
becoming  more  observant  of  detail  will  distinguish  between  few  and 
many,  the  small  plurality  and  the  greater,  or,  as  I  have  heard  it  defined 
in  the  Beach-la-Mar,  "small-plenty"  and  "big-plenty."  The  least  of 
these  must  be  one  and  one;  if  it  were  less  it  would  be  merged  in  the 
name  already  established  for  unity;  there  we  find  a  name  assigned  to 
this  one  and  one,  a  name  and  a  signification  of  two.  The  maximum 
plurality  varies  with  different  peoples  and  diverse  culture  attainments, 
but  even  we  retain  our  diffuse  "big-plenty."  With  piety  probably 
quite  as  obscure  as  the  mathematics,  we  obey  the  solemn  formula  and 
rise  and  join  in  singing  "oh  for  a  thousand  tongues  to  sing"  and  mean 
no  more  than  this  maximum  diffuse  plurality.  In  like  manner  we 
speak  of  a  myriad  stars  which  dot  the  firmament  without  any  sense  of 
restriction  to  10,000.  The  Australian  of  the  Murray  fixes  his  "big- 
plenty"  at  yeniimarra,  which  is  higher  than  barcoola-harcoola  2  +  2  by 
one  unit  or  many.  His  scale  of  number,  therefore,  consists  of  i,  2, 
2  +  1,  2  +  2,  and  infinitude,  which  begins  at  the  very  finger-tips. 

With  this  possibility  in  our  minds  let  us  return  to  the  examination 
of  the  Polynesian  tolu  3.  In  the  discussion  of  tasi  i  I  have  explained 
at  no  little  length  the  development  of  the  sense  of  unity  and  the  manner 
in  which  its  designation  has  been  made  more  and  more  precise  by  the 
method  of  determinant  composition.  In  the  tabulation  which  sums  the 
result  of  that  inquiry  I  have  set  aside  the  employment  of  a  t-component, 
ta  in  22  names  of  unity,  te  in  6  names,  ti  in  11  names,  to  in  5  and  tu 
in  8;  in  sum  the  t-component  appears  in  52  out  of  the  117  names  for 
unity  which  I  have  assembled. 

In  dealing  with  lua  2  I  have  advanced  the  opinion  that  this  also 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN. 


163 


may  be  regarded  as  a  composite.  The  list  of  forms  assembled  will 
exhibit  the  stem  lu  as  meaning  2  in  each  of  the  three  island  groups  of 
language. 

Accordingly  I  am  willing  to  advance  this  further  opinion,  that  tolu 
is  a  composite  of  stem  to  and  stem  lu,  in  effect  1+2  =  3.  At  least  we 
have  estabHshed  stem  to  in  the  sense  of  i  and  stem  lu  in  the  sense  of  2 
and  we  have  shown  that  in  primitive  counting  the  name  for  3  is  in 
certain  instances  positively  identified  as  the  sum  of  i  and  2.  To  have 
attained  to  the  knowledge  that  i  and  2  make  3  is  a  great  stride  in 
mathematics. 

102.  fa  four;  Subanu  pat,  upat  id. 


fa 

Samoa,     Tonga,     Futuna,     Niue, 

pane 

Barriai,  Kilengge. 

Uvea,    Fakaofo,    Marquesas, 

pangi 

Mekeo. 

Manahiki,    Aniwa,    Sikaiana, 

peng 

Abutumete,  Aweleng,  Amge 

Liueniua. 

vani 

Uni,  Pokau,  Kabadi. 

va 

Viti. 

fen 

Oiun. 

ha 

Hawaii,   Mangareva,   Tahiti,   Ra- 

pal 

Graget. 

panui. 

vari 

Epi. 

hak 

Rotuma. 

vir 

Ambrj'm. 

wha 

Maori. 

bai 

Galoma,  Keakalo. 

a 

Rarotonga. 

fai 

Fagani. 

hai 

Ulawa,  Saa,  Wango. 
Hula,  Keapara. 
Tanna. 

fat 
fatta 

Onin,  Namatote,  Lobo,  Lakahia. 
Nokon. 

vai 
fa 

fati 
hat 
i-hat 

Nggao. 
Nokon,  Kali!,  Laur. 
Lambell. 

fau 

fauk 
fiak 

Jamna,  Moar,  Kumamba. 

Tarfia. 
Mafoor. 

hati 

Paama. 

fo 

Masimasi. 

bat 

Kiviri. 

va 

Savo  9. 

bata 

Mukawa,  Kubiri. 

i-va 

Nakanai. 

bate 

Efate. 

ve 

Pak,  Nifilole  9. 

bati 

Raqa. 

wo-ako 

Waropin. 

pat 

Panaieti,  Misima. 

a-rao 

Umre. 

pati 

Sesake. 

a-o 

Mohr. 

tati 

Marina. 

e-a 

Mouk. 

vat 

Eromanga,  Maewo,  Merlav,  Gog, 

pat 

Kayan,  Subanu. 

Vuras,  Mota,  Lo. 

a-pat 

Dusun,  Sulu,  Saru,  Tagalog 

vata 

Vitu. 

Pampangas,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

vati 

Marina,    Nggela,  Vaturanga, 

hi-pa( 

Formosa. 

Bugotu,  Kowamerara,  Koko. 

i-pat 

Bontoc  Igorot. 

vatz 

Malekula. 

o-pat 

Visayan. 

veat 

Volow. 

u-pat 

Subanu. 

vet 

Mosin,  Motlav,  Norbarbar. 

e-fatra 

Malagasy. 

veti 

Sesake  9. 

hat 

Iliwaki. 

wati 

Le  Maire,  Rubi. 

haat 

Timor. 

oatti 

Mannam. 

hata 

Morella. 

at 

Lamassa,  Likkilikki. 

at 

Mahuan. 

lu-at 

King. 

pak 

Champa. 

ate 

Wandammen. 

tak 

Tihu. 

attesi 

Tandia. 

fa 

Mame. 

atti 

Dasener. 

faa 

Amblaw. 

ha«i 

Mugula,  Suau,  Sariba. 

fai 

Teluti. 

?eso-pari      Tubetube. 

faat 

Gah. 

?wohe-pali  Tavara. 

pa 

Menado,  Wayapo. 

?wahe-pari  Awalama. 

pah 

Lampong. 

las 

Nada.                                                       | 

ko-pa 

Sanguir. 

vas 

Lakon,  Murua.                                      , 

ha 

Cajeli. 

vasi 

Arag,  Sinaugoro,  Kiriwina. 

a-ha 

Lariko. 

vesi 

Omba. 

i-ha 

Galela. 

hani 

Doura,  Motu.                                        i 

haa 

Saparua. 

bani 

Waima.  Roro. 

aa 

Caimarian. 

164 


THE   SUBANU. 


It  is  quite  evident  that  in  its  primal  stage  this  was  a  closed  stem 
and  the  weight  of  evidence  indicates  fat.  Ordered  upon  the  mutation 
variety  of  this  final  consonant  the  foregoing  data  show  a  series  in  the 
main  simple.  The  only  point  where  the  mutation  in  series  seems 
perhaps  violent  is  in  the  series  from  hani  to  vani  in  Melanesia,  yet  even 
here  the  difficulty  passes  when  we  observe  that  the  mutation  is  of  the 
type  which  I  have  already  so  minutely  elaborated,  the  passage  from  the 
maximum  to  the  minimum  of  the  possibility  of  speech  effort  of  a  given 
buccal  organ.  Having  established  this  series  the  series  hai  to  vai 
through  loss  of  inner  n  follows  as  a  natural  subsidiary.  The  only  forms 
which  fail  to  fit  snugly  into  this  devolution  series  are  the  Tarfia  fauk, 
Marina  tati,  and  the  Tihu  tak,  the  last  perhaps  associable  with  Marina. 
103.  lima  five;  Subanu  lima  id.     P.  W.  363. 


lima 


ngima 
Ham 

liman 
lima 


Samoa,  Futuna,  Niue,  Nukuoro, 

Nuguria,   Sikaiana,  Hawaii, 

Viti. 
Maori,  Tahiti,  Rarotonga,  Rapa- 

nui,  Moriori,  Aniwa,  Fotuna, 

Mangareva. 
Tonga,  Uvea. 
Moiki. 
Rotuma. 


teve-lima 
tava-Iima 


Pala. 

Epi,  Sesake,  Arag,  Makura,  Malo, 
Santo,Nggela,Bugotu,Nggao, 
New  Georgia,  Lambell,  Mo- 
anus,  Kiriwina,  Nada,  Ta- 
gula,  Brierly  Island,  Bierian, 
Wulua,  Mannam,  Nakanai, 
Vitu,  Mouk,  Graget,  Kobe, 
Koko,  Barriai,  Kowamerara, 
Le  Maire. 
Lo. 
Gog. 


tave-limwe  Mota. 
lime  Paama,  Omba,  Malanta,  Likki- 

likki. 
limi  Yela. 

limo  Epi. 

Una  Tangoan  Santo,  Marina. 

lim  Duke    of    York,     Laur,     Kalil, 

Lamassa,  Ambrym,   Nokon, 
Eromanga,  Kumamba. 

Hem  Aweleng,  Amge. 

te-Hm  King. 

teve-Hm       Maewo. 

teve-Hem     Norbarbar. 

tava-Hmw    Merlav. 

teve-Hmw    Mosin. 

'eve-limw     Leon. 

teve-lem       Vuras,  Motlav,  Volow. 

tivi-lem        Lakon. 

'eve-lem       Sasar,  Pak. 

tava-lemw  Retan. 
lum  Marina,  Weasisi,  Naviliag. 

e-lme        Longa. 
luem         Abutumete. 
rima  Malekula,  Wango,  Fagani. 

rimi  Karufa,  Lobo. 

rimbi        Dasener. 
rimo         Waropin,  Mohr. 


rim  Eromanga,    Pangkumu,    Tarfia, 

Jamna,  Masimasi,  Moar,  La- 
kahia,  Wandammen,  Nama- 
tote,  Mafoor. 

Eromanga. 

Kwamera. 

Aneityum. 
Jamna. 
Baki. 

Kubiri,  Panaieti,  Misima,  Muka- 
wa,  Taupota,  Galavi,  Oiun. 
nima-gesau  Graget. 

Kiviri,  Murua,  Tavara. 

Waima,  Roro,  Mekeo,  Uni,  Pokau, 
Doura,  Kabadi,  Motu,  Do- 
mara,  Mailu,  Boniki,  Sinau- 
goro,  Hula.Keapara.Galoma, 
Keakalo,  Rubi,  Mailu. 

Galavi. 


rem 

rum 

j(i)man 
jim 
jimo 

nima 


mm 
ima 


lima  Malay,  Java,  Cajeli,  Morella,  Ba- 

tumerah,  Teor,  Magindano, 
Champa,  Sulu,  Sumbawa, 
Visayan,  Tihu,  Pampangas, 
Tagalog,  Kayan,  Subanu, 
Mahuan,  Mame,  Salayer, 
Sanguir,  Wayapo,  Massa- 
ratty,  Amblaw,  Awaiya, 
Bima,  Kolon,  Caimarian, 
Baju,  Teluti,  Ahtiago,  Bon- 
toc  Igorot. 
de-Hma         Salibabo. 

Hmah        Lampong. 

limoh        Dusun,  Saru. 

Hmo  Togean. 

liman        Kisa. 

limanu         Bouton. 

lema  Timor. 

e-lma  Iliw^ki. 

lemo  Basakrama. 

Hm  Sirang,  Gah,  Mysot. 

lep-Hm  Gani. 

rima  Menado,     Liang,     Bolanghitam, 

Lariko,  Saparua,  Matabello. 

rim  Jobi,  Dorey. 

nima        Wahai. 

dimy         Malagasy. 

ma  Dayak. 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN. 


165 


In  The  Polynesian  Wanderings,  loc.  cit.,  I  have  discussed  at  length 
the  question  of  precedence  in  the  signification  of  this  stem,  whether  the 
five  derives  from  the  five  fingers  of  the  hand  or  the  hand  derives  from 
the  five  of  its  digitation.  The  very  considerable  additions  of  material 
in  the  present  tabulation  add  nothing,  subtract  nothing  from  the  argu- 
ment there  advanced.  After  renewing  consideration  of  the  subject  I 
yet  incline  toward  the  opinion  that  the  numerical  sense  is  primordial 
and  the  hand  secondary. 


104.  one  six;  Su 

banu  gonom  id. 

ono 

Samoa,    Tonga,    Futuna,    Niue, 

onu 

Kolon. 

Uvea,  Fakaofo,  Viti,  Manga- 

on 

Panaieti. 

reva,   Rapanui,    Marquesas, 

anam 

Malay. 

Tahiti,   Hawaii,   Rarotonga, 

unam 

Salayer. 

Manahiki,     Maori,     Aniwa, 

nam 

Kayan,  Baju. 

Sikaiana. 

enem 

Bontoc  Igorot. 

on 

Rotuina. 

nanam 

Java. 

namano 

Bouton. 

ono 

Omba,  Arag,  Ulawa,  Saa,  Wango, 

nain 

Mahuan. 

Fagani,  Nggela,  Vaturanga, 

nem 

Teor. 

Bugotu,  New  Georgia. 

e-nem 

Iliw^ki. 

ona 

Tagula. 

nen 

Tihu. 

onem 

Mafoor. 

nome 

Awaiya,  Caimarian. 

ano 

Kowamerara. 

lomi 

Wahai. 

eno 

Le  Maire. 

num 

Menado,  Tobo. 

fa-mno 

Nggao. 

ka-num        Sanguir. 

monom 

King. 

gane 

Sulu. 

wono 

Leng,  Mouk,  Lambell. 

ne 

Cajeli. 

wona 

Brierly  Island. 

noo 

Lariko. 

uone 

Likkilikki. 

nooh 

Saparua. 

won 

Laur,  Lamassa,  Nokon. 

noh 

Amblaw. 

noi 

Ahtiago. 

gonom 

Subanu. 

an-nuh 

Salibabo. 

onom 

Visayan,  Dusun. 

nena 

Liang,  Morella,  Batumerah 

onomo 

Bolanghitara. 

e-nina 

Malagasy. 

onam 

Matabello. 

ini 

Bima. 

onem 

Dorey. 

lep-wonan  Gani. 

onum 

Mysot. 

wonen 

Gah. 

It  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  that  the  tabulation  for  6  varies  widely 
from  that  for  5 ;  the  difference  numerically  stated  is  that  we  have  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  lima  in  197  languages  of  these  three  oceanic  areas 
and  ono  in  but  80,  the  decrease  being  wholly  in  Melanesia.  The  reason 
for  this  decrease  hes  wholly  outside  the  realm  of  philology ;  it  is  not  at 
all  a  question  of  phonetic  variety.  It  inheres  in  the  art  of  counting,  it 
is  a  limitation  of  arithmetic,  it  is  the  picture  of  human  minds  yet  unde- 
veloped. Our  first  five  numerals  are  true  digits,  fingers  of  one  hand. 
At  this  point  arithmetic  may  begin,  in  Polynesia  it  has  begun,  in  Indo- 
nesia it  has  come  perhaps  a  httle  more  slowly  but  it  has  arrived.  In 
Melanesia  there  are  scores  of  people  who  have  not  attained  to  the  sense 
of  mathematics  and  the  system  of  the  decimals,  having  counted  one 
hand  they  start  and  count  the  other  hand,  a  new  operation  and  a  dis- 
continuous one.  Six  is  not  in  the  sweep  of  the  arithmetical  series,  it  is 
one  on  the  other  hand ;  the  meaning  of  some  of  these  designations  of  six 
is  selected  at  random,  "hand  and  one,"  "hand-other  one,"  "hand  on- 
its-top  one,"  a  system  which  leads  us  eventually  to  the  complicated 


166 


TH^   SUBANU. 


statement  of  ninety-nine  as  (Tavara  apud  Ray)  oloto  wohepali  hi  hilage 
po  nima  luaga  hi  tutu  po  aiiuiu  po  ivohepali"  men  four  they  die  and  hands 
two  they  finish  and  foot  it  finishes  and  four." 

I  have  written  of  Indonesia  in  the  foregoing  paragraph  that  the 
decimal  arithmetic  has  come  a  little  more  slowly.  Perhaps  it  would  be 
better  to  say  that  it  has  come  a  little  less  surely,  for  the  reckoning  has 
some  sort  of  story  to  tell  us;  lima  appears  in  but  17  variants  in  55 
languages  of  the  Malay  Archipelago,  ono  in  32  forms  in  40  languages, 
forms  which  diverge  so  widely  from  the  primal  onom  that  I  can  account 
for  them  by  no  law  of  the  phonetic  of  these  languages  at  present  known 
to  me  and  which  I  should  not  venture  to  include  in  this  list  if  it  were 
not  that  I  find  them  occurring  with  other  number  words  which  are 
undoubtedly  Polynesian.  I  do  not  profess  to  understand  what  under- 
lies this  variety  in  the  upper  decimals  of  Indonesia;  but  this  fact  is 
clear :  these  languages  have  been  conservative  of  the  form  of  the  digits 
of  the  first  hand;  of  the  fingers  on  the  other  hand  they  have  been 
reckless  in  mutilation. 


I 

05- 

fitu 

seven ; 

Subanu  pitu  id. 

fitu 

Samoa,  Tonga,  Futuna 

Nine 

Uvea, 

hiss 

Likkilikki. 

Fakaofo,    Marquesas, 

A.niwa, 

i-hise         Lambell. 

Sikaiana. 

iss 

Lamassa. 

•  J. 

Viti. 

VltU 

whitu 

Maori. 

fitu 

Teluti,  Matabello. 

hitu 

Tahiti,  Manahiki, 

Rapanui 

Mar- 

fiti 

Gah. 

quesas. 

fito 

Malagasy. 

itu 

Rare  tonga. 

fit 

Tobo,  Teor,  Mysot. 

fiku 

Liueniua. 

lep-fit        Gani. 

hiku 

Hawaii. 

pitu 

Subanu,  Kolon,  Java,  Menado,  Bo- 

hith 

Rotuma. 

langhitam,  Salibabo,  Amblaw. 

ahito 

Paumotu. 

pitu- 

ga-p 

-ano  Bouton. 
tu     Sulu. 

fitu 

Nggao. 

ka-pitu     Sanguir. 

fita 

Le  Maire. 

pidu 

Bima. 

fik 

Mafoor. 

pito 

Visaj'an,  Wayapo,  Massaratty 

fiak 

Dorey. 

Bon  toe  Igorot. 

vitu 

Arag,  Nggela,  Vaturanga,  Bugotu. 

pety 

Basakrama. 

vitsu          Kowamerara. 

witu 

Awaiya. 

wijtsou     Le  Maire. 

hitu 

Tihu,  Iliwaki,  Saparua. 

bitu 

Omba. 

hito 

Cajeli. 

bi'u 

Wango. 

en-hit       Ahtiago. 

piru 

Tagula. 

itu 

Mahuan,    Liang,    Morella,    Lariko 

pi'u 

Fagani. 

Caimarian,  Wahai. 

pit 

Misima. 

itu-a 

Batumerah. 

pik 

Brierly  Island. 

tusu 

Kay  an. 

hi'u 

Ulawa,  Saa. 

tujuh 

Malay. 

hit 

Nok6n,  Suralil. 

tujoh 

Salayer,  Baju. 

it 

Laur. 

turoh 

Dusun. 

mau-it       King. 

For  seven  the  Indonesian  runs  truer  to  the  Polynesian  type  than 
for  six.  The  only  doubtful  point  lies  in  the  tusti  group;  this  may  be 
explained  as  tu  of  the  primal  stem  with  terminal  accretion ;  against  this 
explanation  militates  the  fact  that  nowhere  in  the  three  oceanic  areas 
does  tu  appear  as  carrying  the  seven  sense;  it  is  more  reasonable  to 
regard  this  as  the  intrusion  of  an  alien  stem  bearing  this  partial  resem- 
blance.    This  seems  the  more  likely  interpretation,  since  tusu  is  accom- 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN. 


167 


panied  by  alien  words  for  eight  and  nine  after  Polynesian  designation 
of  the  numerals  inclusive  of  six,  as  here  set  forth. 


Seven. 

Eight. 

Nine. 

Kayan 

tusu 

tujoh .... 
tujuh .... 
tujoh .... 
turoh .... 

saya 

kama .... 
salapan. . . 
dolapan .  . 

(walu) .  .  . 

pitan. 

kasa. 

sambilan. 

sambilan. 

(siam). 

Salayer 

Malay 

Bail! 

Dusun 

1 06.  valu  eight;  Subanu  walu  id. 


valu 

Samoa,    Tonga,    Futuna,     Uvea, 
Niue,  Fakaofo,  Rarotonga. 

valo 

Basakrama,  Malagasy. 

varu 

Tahiti,     Manahiki, 

Mangareva, 

velu-ano  Bouton. 

Rapanui,  Aniwa. 

walu 

Subanu,  Dusun,  Sanguir,  Amblaw 

a-varu         Paumotu. 

walu- 

-'a       Batumerah,  Awaiya,  Caima- 

vau 

Marquesas,  Tahiti. 

rian. 

vol 

Rotuma. 

walru 

Menado. 

walu 

Viti,  Hawaii. 

walo 

Cajeli,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

waru 

Maori,  Sikaiana. 

oalo 
wal 

Visayan. 

Tobo,  Teor,  Mysot. 

walu 

Ulawa,  Saa. 

lep-wal        Gani. 

welu 

Omba,  Arag. 

waru 

Bima,   Salibabo,   Liang,   Morella 

wala 

Le  Maire. 

Lariko,  Saparua. 

uale 

LikkiHkki. 

ware 

Bolanghitam. 

wal 

Nokon,  Laur. 

wagu 

Teluti. 

ual 

Lamassa. 

wolu 

Java. 

i-wal 

Lambell. 

en-wol 

Ahtiago. 

te-wal         King. 

alu 

Kolon,  Gah,  Wahai. 

falu 

Nggao. 

allu 

Matabello. 

alu 

Nggela,  Vaturanga, 

Bugotu. 

hau 

?Iliwiki. 

waru 

Wango,  Fagani. 

i-hau 

Tihu. 

war 

Mafoor. 

han 

?Iliwaki. 

wan 

Brierly  Island. 

kao 

Mahuan. 

wa 

Tagula. 

107.  hiva  nine;  Subanu  siam  id. 


hiva     Tonga,  Niue,  Uvea. 

dhiva  Viti. 

siwo     Sikaiana. 

Slav      Rotuma. 

iva       Samoa,  Futuna,  Fakaofo,  Rapanui, 

Marquesas,  Tahiti,  Rarotonga, 

Manahiki,  Aniwa. 
iwa       Hawaii,  Maori. 


siwa 

Le  Maire,  Ulawa,  Wango,  Fagani. 

siwe 

Saa. 

SIWO 

Omba,  Arag,  Brierly  Island. 

sia 

New  Georgia. 

siu 

Suralil,  Laur,  Likkilikki,  Vaturanga. 

ClU 

Tagula. 

siw 

Mafoor. 

tsiu 

Nokon,  Kowamerara. 

siuk         Lambell. 

sewok      Lamassa. 

hiua 

Nggela. 

hia 

Bugotu,  Nggao. 

Hsu 

King. 

Cajeli,  Amblaw,  Morella,  Batumerah, 
Lariko,  Saparua,  Awaiya,  Cai- 
marian,  Teluti,  Tobo,  Ahtiago 
Amboyna,  Ceram. 


siwah      Lampong. 

siwer       Teor. 
sia        Mahuan,  Liang,  Gah,  Wahai,  Mata- 
bello. 

e  sia        Iliwiki. 

i-sia         Tihu. 

gata-sia  Sulu. 

e-shia     Wayapo. 

chia         Massaratty. 
siam    Subanu,  Visayan,  Dusun,  Pampan- 
gas,  Bontoc  Igorot. 

siyam      Tagalog,  Bontoc  Igorot. 
sic        Menado,  Bolanghitam,  Tidore,  Ga- 
lela. 

sio-anu    Bouton. 

ka-siow  Sanguir. 

sioh         Salibabo. 

siaou       Magindano. 
sieuw  Dorey. 

lep-siu     Gani. 
sivy      Malagasy. 
pitan  Kayan. 
si  Mysot. 

iva        Mame. 


168 

THE   SUBANU. 

1 08.  ngafulu  ten; 

Subanu  sapulu  id. 

ngafulu 

Samoa. 

sanau 

Dobu. 

ngahuru 

Tongarewa,  Maori. 

samfur 

Mafoor. 

lau-ngahulu  Manahiki. 

sauli 

Likkilikki. 

ngaulu 

Rarotonga. 

singino 

King. 

angafulu 

Futuna. 

son  go 

Leng. 

anaulu 
onohuu 

Hawaii. 
Marquesas. 

nanau 

Mailu. 

sanghul 

Rotuma. 

sanpulo 

Magindano. 

sangavulu 

Viti. 

sangpuo 

Tagalog. 

hangahuru 

Rapanui. 

hangpu 

Sulu. 

hongofulu 

Tonga,  Niue,  Uvea. 

hampulu 

Kolon. 

ahuru 

Tahiti. 

sapulu 

Subanu,  Basakrama. 

tangafuru 

Aniwa. 

sapuluh 

Malay. 

tingahuru          Maori. 

sapuloh 

Bouton,  Salayer,  Baju. 

tirongouru        Mangareva. 

sanulu 

Iliwdki. 

sefulu 

Samoa,  Fakaofo. 

senulu 

Tihu,  Mahuan. 

polo 

Wayapo,  Massaratty,  Bontoc 

sangavuru 

Kowamerara,  Koko. 

Igorot.               .  ^ 

zangavulu 

Vitu. 

napolo 

Visayan.     L'  j-'r'-' 

sangafula 

Le  Maire. 

folo 

Malagasy.  ?  Ji    ■' 

sangapulo 

Le  Maire. 

pulu 

Kayan,  Lampong.'^Sirang. 

sangahul 

Barriai. 

apulu 

Pampangas. 

sanghaul 

Kalil. 

plu 

Champa. 

sangaul 

Kilengge,  Umre. 

mpuru 

Bima. 

sanghul 

Suralil,  Laur. 

buro 

Amblaw. 

sanguli 

Lamassa. 

pulo 

Kayan,  Matu. 

sangul 

Nokon. 

pulah 

Java. 

sungul 

Aweleng. 

kapuroh 

Sanguir. 

e-sungul 

Abutumete. 

mapuroh 

Salibabo. 

sanaulu 

Tubetube. 

mapulroh 

Menado. 

sanhulu 

King. 

mopuru 

Bolanghitam. 

In  Polynesia  and  in  Indonesia  we  find  a  primal  stem  fulu  with  two 
prefaces,  sanga  and  se  respectively;  in  Indonesia  we  find  a  frequent 
occurrence  of  the  primal  stem  absolute  and  this  in  the  languages  which 
our  other  evidence  shows  us  to  be  primordial.  In  Melanesia  the  devo- 
lution forms  are  all  derived  from  the  sangafulu  composite.  The  tale  of 
the  forms  for  ten  is  not  without  interest,  59  forms  in  73  languages. 
When  we  compare  this  with  the  record  for  lima,  we  are  led  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  concept  which  establishes  the  decimal  system  is  of  the 
most  modern  phase  of  these  languages  at  the  hour  when  the  first  Poly- 
nesians were  expelled  from  Indonesia. 

Since  the  collation  of  the  material  and  the  establishment  of  the 
numeration  of  the  foregoing  synopsis  of  the  Polynesian  content  in  the 
conjoint  Subanu  and  Visayan  I  have  seen  reason  to  include  two  items 
whch  escaped  my  attention.  These  will  be  found  in  brief  synopsis  in 
the  dictionary  under  the  words  but  and  tian.  The  sum,  therefore,  must 
be  increased  by  two  and  stands  at  1 10  items. 

In  this  list  there  is  little  to  call  for  explanation  on  the  score  of 
phonetics.  The  consonant  mutations  are  all  readily  comprehensible 
and  of  standard  type.  We  have  already  had  occasion  to  note  that  the 
vowel  mutability  is  great;  it  represents  a  Malayan  speech  principle 
quite  opposed  to  the  stern  fixity  of  vowel  elements  which  holds  through- 
out the  Polynesian.     We  need  not  examine  particulars  except  in  one 


POIyYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN.  169 

small  and  quite  important  group.  A  few  final  vowels  exhibit  a  muta- 
tion to  diphthongs  which  is  wholly  anomalous  when  referred  to  the 
Polynesian  phonetic.  All  the  examples  which  present  this  diphthongal 
mutation  are  exhibited  in  the  following  list : 


a-ay 

tifa 

tipay 

i-oy 

afi 

gapoy 

e-ai 

ate 

gatai 

o-ao 

lano 

danao 

e-ay 

fale 

balay 

malino 

linao 

fohe 

bogsay 

o-au 

lango 

langau 

mate 

matay 

u-hoy 

kau 

cahoy 

I  can  see  an  explanation  of  this  movement  which  seems  valid  so  far 
as  it  goes.  It  will  serve  excellently  to  account  for  the  foregoing  in- 
stances ;  the  objection  will  lie  in  the  fact  that  it  offers  no  explanation  of 
the  many  instances  in  which  the  final  vowel  undergoes  no  such  mutation. 
The  Polynesian  languages  are  under  an  inexorable  movement  toward 
open  syllables.  In  every  one,  the  words  invariably  end  at  their  present 
stage  in  a  vowel.  But  as  we  work  backward  along  the  track  of  their 
migration  we  find  convincing  proof  that  this  compulsion  is  modern ;  it 
has  become  effective  only  since  their  arrival  in  their  new  Pacific  homes. 
In  my  late  studies  of  Rapanui  I  have  been  able  to  establish  as  fact  that 
the  migration  which  eventually  settled  upon  Easter  Island  left  Nuclear 
Polynesia  at  a  period  when  the  Proto-Samoan  still  retained  in  use  its 
final  consonants.  In  Polynesian  loan  material  held  by  Melanesian  lan- 
guages we  find  not  only  final  consonants,  but  we  find  distinct  evidence 
that  stems  ending  in  a  vowel  were  abraded  to  establish  a  preferred  form 
with  a  final  consonant  and  that  this  in  turn  has  been  abraded  when  the 
speech  fashion  turned  toward  the  open  syllable;  and  thus  we  have 
exposed  as  final  a  vowel  originally  medial  in  the  primal  stem.  On  the 
other  hand  the  Malayan  languages  have  an  equal  desire  for  closed  stems; 
we  encounter  many  vocables  whose  primal  open  stem  is  now  closed 
by  the  addition  of  a  consonant  in  deference  to  this  movement.  As  I 
take  it,  these  ten  words  of  the  open  stem  were  held  by  their  Malayan 
borrowers  as  (for  some  reason  to  us  incomprehensible)  exempt  from 
their  own  inclination  to  add  some  final  consonant.  Therefore  the  minds 
of  the  speakers  were  under  stress  to  avoid  the  easy  final  consonant,  to 
accentuate  the  fact  that  the  final  sound  was  a  vowel,  accordingly  to 
reproduce  this  mental  stress  by  making  the  final  vowel  more  vocalic 
than  it  was  intended  to  be.  Why  this  motive  has  left  no  trace  in  other 
stems  of  open  type  we  may  not  now  attempt  to  explain. 

Thus  we  are  naturally  directed  to  the  general  treatment  of  the 
Polynesian  content  by  the  several  groups  of  Malayans  which  possess  it 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree.  We  have  just  seen  examples  of  assiduity  in 
its  pronunciation,  evidence  that  the  material  was  at  least  subconsciously 
felt  to  be  aUen,  In  the  same  way  we  find  that  the  Polynesian  content 
is  held  uncontrolled  by  the  ordinary  rules  of  Malayan  grammar;  it  is 
almost  wholly  free  from  the  incidence  of  the  customary  Malayan  infix- 
ature.     In  the  foregoing  synopsis  (item  83)  I  have  pointed  out  the 


170  THE   SUBANU. 

possibility  of  the  use  of  the  infix  in  the  word  tinae,  but  this  is  unique 
and  therefore  doubtful.  The  more  closely  we  study  the  Malayan  use  of 
the  Polynesian  content,  by  so  much  the  more  do  we  convince  ourselves 
that  it  is  essentially  a  foreign  element — adopted,  but  very  scantily 
adapted.  I  can  find  but  one  instance  in  which  Malayan  infixature  has 
been  applied  to  a  Polynesian  loan,  fill  item  20. 

Since  the  mutation  is  found  most  irregular  in  the  treatment  of  the 
vowels,  which  in  Polynesian  are  the  elements  which  carry  the  meaning 
despite  consonant  variety,  I  may  cite  an  instance  in  our  own  English 
which  will  illustrate  this  point.  In  France  the  contre-danse  may  be 
applied  with  reason  to  so  formal  a  dance  as  the  stately  minuet.  A 
polished  court  brought  contre-danse  into  England  in  order  to  add  dig- 
nity to  its  festivities  and  to  have  possession  of  a  name  which  should 
prevent  the  dances  of  Whitehall  from  confusion  with  the  Morris  dancers 
on  the  green  before  the  wayside  tavern.  After  adoption  followed  adap- 
tation ;  through  an  inexorable  rule  of  English  phonetics  the  alien  contre- 
danse  underwent  vowel  mutation  and  became  country-dance.  In  its 
new  form  it  was  misunderstood  and  applied  to  the  very  dances  which 
it  was  designed  to  place  in  a  more  humble  state.  Now  it  is  very  freely 
employed  of  the  folk  dances  lately  restored  somewhat  artificially  to  use. 
Last  stage  of  all,  the  true  meaning  of  contra  having  quite  vanished,  it  has 
become  barn  dance.  From  a  Louis  Treize  treading  the  gavotte  whose 
lilt  is  yet  not  wholly  forgotten,  the  word  has  passed  to  Hodge  heeling 
and  toeing  the  dust  from  a  puncheon  floor  between  the  racks  of  hay. 

Where  we  see  the  Malayans  preserving  the  Polynesian  content  as 
a  foreign  acquisition  we  see  on  the  other  hand  the  Polynesians  quite 
uncontaminated  by  any  Malayan  influence,  the  only  possible  exception 
being  tinae,  which  I  present  more  as  a  result  of  curious  research  than 
with  conviction. 

The  purpose  of  this  chapter — indeed,  so  far  as  I  am  concerned,  the 
end  and  object  of  this  whole  book — is  to  pass  under  critical  review  the 
validity  of  the  so-called  Malayo-Polynesian  family  of  speech.  We  now 
have  come  through  much  minute  investigation  to  the  point  at  which  we 
may  deal  with  this  problem. 

We  shall  find  assistance  in  arithmetic.  In  former  books  in  which 
I  have  dealt  with  this  subject  I  was  content  to  accept  the  list  of  words 
common  to  Malayan  and  Polynesian  compiled  by  predecessors  in  this 
inquiry  and  copied  by  one  from  another.  Thus  I  was  led  into  the  state- 
ment that  the  mass  of  material  satisfactorily  thus  established  amounted 
to  somewhere  about  twelve  dozen  stems.  Now  I  have  made  a  fresh 
computation  for  myself  upon  one  Malayan  base  and  am  prepared  to 
amend  the  former  figures.  In  Subanu-Visayan  the  amount  of  the  Poly- 
nesian content  is  no  stems.  This  is  a  figure  upon  which  I  am  willing 
to  stand  as  the  result  of  careful  study.  It  represents  the  extent  to  which 
some  Polynesian  has  communityjwith  one  Malayan,  namely  the  Subanu- 
Visayan. 


POLYNESIAN  AND  MALAYAN.  171 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  figure  is  not  exhaustive.  The  full  record 
should  state  the  figure  of  the  extent  to  which  some  Polynesian  has 
community  with  some  Malayan.  I  can  answer  for  practically  all  Poly- 
nesian. To  answer  for  all  Malayan  would  entail  the  collation  of  all  the 
languages  of  the  archipelago,  a  task  which  would  inordinately  delay 
other  work  which  I  must  prosecute.  To  the  figure  thus  estabhshed  in 
my  own  studies  I  now  add  the  figures  which  are  derived  from  the  studies 
of  other  workers  but  which  I  have  not  wholly  verified. 

In  The  Polynesian  Wanderings  the  work  was  conducted  upon  the 
base  of  the  speech  of  Efate  in  the  New  Hebrides.  Referring  to  the 
serial  number  of  the  items  in  Appendix  I  of  that  volume,  I  now  present 
the  following  table  of  Malayan  identifications  which  are  extra- Visayan : 

9  lo  27  28  29  31  32  33  34  35  36  37  38  47  78 

79  128  169  171  174  177  178  179  180  i8i  183  184  213  215  218 

221  222  223  225  226  227  228  230  231  233  235  237  238  241  243 

248  249  252  255  256  257  258  260  261  265  266  268  269  270  272 

273  275  276  279  281  282  286  287  288  289  291  293  296  297  299 

302  304  305  306  307  311  313  316  320  322  326  328  329  331  333 

337  341  342  345  346  349  352  353  354  355  357  358  360  362  364 

The  105  additions  to  the  Polynesian  content  in  this  list  rest  most 
immediately  upon  Tregear's  "Maori  Comparative  Dictionary"  and 
Turner's  "Samoa." 

I  next  add  from  Mr.  Tregear's  dictionary  these  42  items,  referring 
to  the  Maori  words.  These  are  the  residuum  after  extracting  all 
instances  contained  in  this  tabulation  and  in  the  synopsis  of  the  Visayan 
in  this  chapter.  Of  this  residue  in  Tregear,  the  42  are  all  that  I  am 
wilUng  to  accept,  for  Mr.  Tregear,  while  equally  opposed  to  the  Malayo- 
Polynesian  family,  goes  in  his  identifications  a  little  beyond  what  I 
regard  as  just  in  philologic  method. 


anewa 

hamuti 

kata 

mai 

miro 

patu 

tango 

anini 

hana 

koekoea 

mana 

miti 

poto 

tara 

anuhe 

haunga 

ko  mo 

manga 

ngita 

puke 

tia 

api 

horo 

kopu 

marie 

pae 

puna 

tuna 

atarau 

kaho 

korokoro 

matau 

paka 

rama 

tupu 

ato 

kapo 

kui 

mimi 

papa 

rimu 

wawara 

The  sum  of  these  three  groups  is  257 ;  that  is  the  tale  of  words  upon 
which,  really  upon  far  less  than  which,  Bopp  erected  his  family  of  the 
Malay o- Polynesian  languages.  The  research  which  has  compiled  these 
lists  is  so  great,  the  study  has  been  so  minute  on  the  part  of  my  pains- 
taking predecessors,  that  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  further  study, 
such  as  I  have  conducted  de  novo  upon  the  Visayan,  will  add  appreciably 
to  this  figure.  I  do  not  intend  to  perform  the  operation  under  the  rule 
of  three,  not  puzzled  but  inexpressibly  weary  of  this  Malayo-Polynesian 
bar  which  has  long  blocked  the  path  of  philologic  research  into  the  begin- 
nings of  human  speech ;  but  any  one  who  cares  may  compute  the  ratio 
of  no  Polynesian  words  to  the  12,000  stems  entered  in  the  Visayan 
dictionary  of  Fray  Juan  Felix.     Then,  if  he  will,  he  may  reckon  the 


172  THE   SUBANU. 

ratio  of  257  words  to  the  corpus  of  Malayan  speech  in  some  scores  and 
more  of  languages.  I  do  not  now  recall  an  enumeration  of  the  number 
of  words  which  we  have  assumed  from  the  American  Indian.  Squaw 
and  papoose,  wigwam  and  tepee,  wampumpeag  and  quahaug  from 
which  it  was  cut — I  am  sure  that  I  could  find  250  words  taken  by  vio- 
lence or  wheedling  from  our  wards  and  included  in  the  tongue  we  speak. 
But  not  on  that  account  (should  I  ever  be  tempted  to  become  a  philo- 
logic  systematist)  do  I  intend  to  propose  the  erection  of  a  speech  family 
of  the  Anglo-Algonkian  for  New  England  or  Anglo-Iroquoian  for  New 
York,  although  I  sometimes  fancy  that  such  a  family,  did  it  really  exist, 
would  tend  toward  the  better  preservation  of  the  purity  of  the  diction 
now  local  to  Manhattan.  This  is  not  absurd,  or  else  Bopp's  Malayo- 
Polynesian  family  founded  on  equal  numbers  is  absurd ;  which,  in  truth, 
I  believe  it  to  be. 

I  shall  not  here  enter  at  length  upon  the  consideration  of  the  source 
of  this  Polynesian  content  of  the  Malayan ;  I  shall  not  here  explain  how 
it  is  possible  that  the  Malayan  contains  Polynesian  and  the  Polynesian 
contains  no  Malayan.  Amending  the  figure  from  150  to  257,  I  have 
presented  this  argument  in  full  in  The  Polynesian  Wanderings.  In  its 
barest  outline  I  shall  restate  it. 

The  Polynesian  peoples  before  the  Christian  era  occupied  more  or 
less  completely  the  islands  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  were  probably 
as  now  in  the  Pacific,  coast-dwellers.  About  that  epoch  the  Malayan 
peoples  descended  upon  the  island  region  from  the  coast  lands  of  the 
Asiatic  continent  with  a  superior  civiUzation,  probably  in  the  possession 
of  the  art  of  working  metals.  Before  the  better-equipped  warriors  the 
Polynesians  fled  eastward,  ever  being  dislodged  from  more  eastern 
islands  of  the  archipelago  as  the  Malayans  bore  upon  their  rearguard. 
Eventually  the  Polynesians  were  forced  out  of  the  archipelago  by  way 
of  the  waters  respectively  north  of  New  Guinea  and  south*  thereof  and 
in  the  free  Pacific  were  beyond  the  reach  of  their  oppressors.  From  the 
reading  of  the  material  contained  in  this  volume  I  add  to  my  former 
consideration  another  explanation  of  the  Polynesian  content. 

In  the  west  of  Malaysia — say  in  Sumatra,  since  the  present  ethno- 
logic position  of  Mentawei  off  the  western  coast  of  that  island  is  most 
significant — the  first  stragglers  of  the  Malayan  swarm,  too  few  to  be 
dangerous,  necessarily  on  their  good  behavior,  would  be  adopted  into 
the  Pro  to-Polynesian  communities  and  undergo  naturaUzation  in  speech 
and  habit.  Later,  upon  the  coming  of  the  irresistible  body  of  the 
invaders,  this  body  of  naturalized  Polynesian  Malays  would  be  the  first 
to  feel  the  attack  and  would  scatter  wherever  their  fleets  could  carry 
them,  yet  as  soon  as  peace  was  made  they  would  prove  readily  assimil- 
able with  their  parent  Malayan  stock.  This  provides  a  sufficient  expla- 
nation why  we  find  the  most  archetypal  Malay  at  points  so  sundered  as 

*See  note  at  end  of  chapter,  p.  173. 


POLYNESIAN   AND   MALAYAN.  173 

the  Malagasy  of  Madagascar,  the  Punans,  Klemantans,  and  Kayans 
of  North  Borneo,  the  several  tribes  of  the  Philippines,  and  why,  in 
conjunction  with  the  most  archaic  Malay,  we  find  equally  the  purest 
preservation  of  the  Polynesian. 

In  thus  sundering  the  Polynesian  from  the  Malayan,  in  establishing 
the  fact  that  they  represent  two  families  of  speech  of  different  grades  of 
development  and  not  a  single  one,  we  shall  work  no  harm  to  the  science 
of  language.  On  the  contrary  the  result  should  be  most  highly  bene- 
ficial, for  it  is  always  a  relief  to  be  rid  of  superstition  and  obsession  in 
any  relation  of  life.  Set  free  from  its  impossible  association  with  the 
agglutinative  Malayan,  the  isolating  Polynesian  will  stand  forth  as  the 
fit  road  along  which  investigation  may  trace  its  steps  to  a  genesis  of  the 
speech  of  man.  The  ultimate  attainment  of  research  into  the  modern 
languages  of  the  analytic  type  is  to  establish  their  groundwork  in  the 
inflected  tongues.  The  last  point  which  the  student  of  the  languages 
of  inflection  may  attain  is  to  connect  them  with  yet  earlier  agglutinative 
speech.  So,  too,  with  the  student  of  agglutination,  his  analysis  carries 
him  back  to  the  yet  simpler  speech  of  isolation. 

In  like  manner,  in  like  measure,  the  investigator  who  begins  on 
this  bottom  level,  makes  his  start  in  a  family  of  isolating  language — 
what  may  he  hope  to  reach?  Early  in  his  course  he  will  reach  mono- 
syllabism,  a  term  frequently  but  erroneously  applied  to  isolating  speech. 
After  the  monosyllable  what  is  there?  There  is  the  vowel,  and  this  is 
in  the  speech  of  man  because  he  is  an  animal  and  the  unmixed  vowel 
is  the  whole  speech  of  the  beast.  There  is  the  consonant  modulant 
whereby  man  is  learning  to  adapt  animal  speech  to  needs  which  the 
beast  can  not  feel.  It  is  there  that  speech  begins.  Only  set  the  Poly- 
nesian speech  free  from  the  hindrance  and  the  misleading  of  the 
Malayan  association,  and  the  students  of  speech  may  press  bravely 
on  to  the  discovery  of  the  beginning  of  man  speech. 


I  regard  myself  as  singularly  fortunate,  I  consider  it  a  great  factor  in 
the  awakening  of  interest  in  the  themes  to  which  these  studies  of  the  Pacific 
and  Indian  seas  may  lead,  that  there  is  an  interlacing  of  the  work  of  Captain 
Friederici  with  my  own.  In  this  work  I  have  made  grateful  use  of  his  material 
as  enriching  the  phonetic  studies  presented  in  this  chapter.  Later  in  the  serial 
course  of  these  studies  I  shall  be  under  a  great  debt  to  him  for  clearing  the 
way  in  his  brilliant  research  into  the  grammar  of  Melanesian  speech.  In 
my  volume  The  Polynesian  Wanderings  I  was  led  to  propose  a  second  migra- 
tion track  of  Polynesian  migrants  through  Torres  Straits.  Just  before  this 
chapter  leaves  my  hand  I  am  fortunately  in  receipt  of  his  comment  upon  the 
Viti  Stream  which  I  have  proposed.  It  is  published  at  page  1 6  of  his  third 
volume,  Untersuchungen  iiber  cine  melanesische  Wander  sir  as  se  (19 13). 

"Nachdem  somit  in  grossen  Ziigen  die  ethnologischen  und  linguistischen  Verhaltnisse 
der  vier  Volkergruppen  iiberschaut  worden  sind,  die  durch  die  folgende  Untersuchung 
miteinander  verbunden  werden  sollen,  bleibt  mir  noch  iibrig,  kurz  den  Stand  der  Auffas- 
sungen  zu  skizzieren,  der  zur  Zeit  des  Erscheinens  von  Teil  II  dieser  Veroffentlichung,  also 
im  Marz  1912,  von  den  Ethnologen  und  Linguisten  in  dieser  Frage  eingenommen  wurde. 


174  THE   SUBANU. 

"Nachdem  man  noch  vor  kaum  50  Jahren  jede  melanesische  Wandemng  fiir  hochst 
unwahrscheinlich  erklaren  zu  miissen  geglaubt  hatte,  traten  nach  einem  nicht  unbretracht- 
lichen  Anwachsen  unserer  Kenntnisse  iiber  Ost-Neu-Guinea  im  Jahre  1889  zwei  Ansichten 
zugleich  in  die  Offentlichkeit,  von  denen  eine  jede  den  richtigen  Wanderweg  der  hier  sitzen- 
den  Melanesier  gefunden  zu  haben  glaubte.  Die  eine  stammte  von  E.  J.  Hamy,  die  andere 
von  Basil  Thomson. 

"Die  von  Thomson  ist  schnell  erledigt.  Wahrend  die  Motu  und  verwandten  Stamme 
selbst  angeben  dass  sie  von  Osten  kommend  eingewandert  sind,  sagt  Thomson  dass  sie  von 
Westen  gekommen  seien,  also  durch  die  Torres-Strasse.  Ich  wiirde  diese  durch  nichts 
gestiitzte  nackte  Angabe  nicht  weiter  angefiihrt  haben,  wenn  nicht  William  Churchill  kiirz- 
lich  in  einer  umfangreichen  Arbeit  den  Beweis  erbracht  zu  haben  glaubt,  dass  tatsachhch 
ein  von  Westen  kommender  Wanderzug  durch  die  Torres-Strasse  gegangen  sei  und  auf 
diesem  Wege  die  Neu-Hebriden  erreicht  habe.  Churchill  glaubt  mit  Hilfe  sprachlicher 
Untersuchungen  zwei  M.  P.-Wanderstrassen  aus  Indonesien  nach  der  Siidsee  festgestellt 
zu  haben,  von  denen  die  eine  soeben  genannt  wurde,  wahrend  die  andere  nordlich  lun  Neu- 
Guinea,  nordlich  von  Neu-Pommern  durch  den  St.  Georgs-Kanal  nach  den  Salomonen  ging. 
Die  Dampier-  und  Vitiaz-Strassen  werden  von  ihm  ignoriert.  Es  ist  hier  nicht  der  Ort 
auf  die  Methode  und  Dmchfuhrung  der  Arbeit  von  Churchill  einzugehen;  ich  kann  auch 
nicht  versuchen,  den  Beweis  zu  liefem,  dass  diese  von  ihm  gewonnenen  Ergebnisse  nach 
meiner  Ansicht  nicht  richtig  sind.  Wenn  ich  jedoch  nachweise,  dass  die  Westlichen  Papuo- 
Melanesier  von  Britisch-Neu-Guinea  durch  die  Vitiaz-  luid  Dampier-Strasse  gefahren  sind, 
imd  dann  von  Osten  kommend  ihre  neue  Heimat  an  der  Siidkiiste  von  Neu-Guinea  erreicht 
haben,  dann  beweise  ich  zugleich,  dass  diese  Melanesier  wenigstens  nicht  von  Westen  durch 
die  Torres-Strasse  gekommen  sind,  und  ich  beweise,  dass  es  neben  der  Torres-Strasse  und 
dem  St.  Georgs-Kanal  noch  ein  drittes  hochstwichtiges  Einfallstor  in  die  Siidsee  gibt,  namlich 
die  Meeresstrassen  zwischen  Neu-Guinea  und  Neu-Pommern. 

Unter  Heranziehung  des  damals  ja  nur  sparlich  fliessenden  ethnologisch-anthropo- 
logischen  Materials,  aber  unter  sachgemasser  Ausnutzung  desselben,  weist  Hamy  in  einer 
sehr  geschickten  Abhandlung  eine  melanesische  Wanderstrasse  nach,  die  entlang  der  Nord- 
kiiste  von  Neu-Guinea  durch  die  Dampier-Strasse  bis  in  den  Louisiaden-Archipel  zu  verfol- 
gen  ist.  Schon  allein  die  Vernachlassigung  dieser  vortrefflichen  Arbeit  oder  des  in  ihr 
steckenden  Materials,  das  er  ja  auch  selbst  hatte  sammeln  konnen,  erscheint  als  ein  Fehler 
in  Churchills  Methode.  Es  ist  iibrigens  nicht  allein  Chiu-chill  dem  diese  verdienstvolle 
Arbeit  entgangen  zu  sein  scheint. 

I  am  peculiarly  grateful  to  Captain  Friederici  for  his  graceful  note  that 
I  am  not  the  only  student  of  the  South  Sea  v^ho  has  neglected  to  make  the 
acquaintance  of  Hamy's  vsrork.  A  circumstance  may  be  mentioned  in  palli- 
ation of  my  failure  to  see  the  migration  possibility  of  Vitiaz  and  Dampier. 
At  the  time  when  I  was  first  familiarizing  myself  with  the  channels  of  com- 
munication through  Melanesia  at  a  period  considerably  anterior  to  my  friend's 
acquaintance  with  the  now  well-policed  waters  of  the  Bismarck  Archipelago, 
this  waterway  between  Neu-Pommern  and  New  Guinea  was  a  most  forbidding 
spot.  Access  to  its  northern  portal  was  difficult,  to  its  southern  portal  equally 
hazardous,  the  strait  itself  was  all  but  unknown  and  its  reputation  was  of  the 
worst.  As  a  navigator  I  formed  a  distinct  impression  of  the  unavailability  of 
the  passage ;  this  impression  has  persisted  into  my  later  studies,  this  confession 
resting  more  on  the  sympathetic  than  on  the  scientific  order  of  thought. 

I  am  very  glad  that  Captain  Friederici  establishes  this  passage  as  the 
third  of  the  Polynesian  highways.  I  am  thereby  better  able  to  adjust  in  the 
general  scheme  of  travel  the  Polynesian  content  of  Bonguand  kindred  languages 
of  German  New  Guinea,  including  therewith  the  interesting  case  of  Mannam 
Island. 

Yet  I  do  not  consider  that  my  theory  of  a  Torres  Strait  fairway  for  Polyne- 
sian migration  is  thereby  contravened,  nor  does  Captain  Friederici  make  that 
claim,  for  he  speaks  of  the  Dampier- Vitiaz  as  "noch  ein  drittes  hochstwichtiges 
Einfallstor  in  die  Siidsee."  I  am  glad  to  see  that  in  writing  for  the  Bulletin 
of  the  American  Geographical  Society  of  Friederici's  second  volume  I  pointed 
out  that  his  record  of  the  Barriai  speech  was  sufficient  to  establish  this  strait 
as  an  open  highway  to  the  Polynesian  fleet. 


POLYNESIAN  AND  MALAYAN.  175 

Whatever  the  decision  may  be  at  which  we  may  arrive  in  advancing 
knowledge  as  to  the  peopling  of  the  littoral  of  British  New  Guinea,  I  do  not 
think  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  regard  Torres  Strait  as  closed  to  Polynesian 
migration.  That  view  is  held  by  Sidney  Ray  and  expressed  in  his  study  of 
the  vocabulary  material  contained  in  Wollaston's  "Pygmies  and  Papuans." 
Yet  from  the  coasts  of  that  region,  far  to  the  west  of  the  Gulf  of  Papua,  and 
for  which  no  one  would  suggest  a  settlement  from  the  east,  I  am  finding  sources 
of  the  same  Polynesian  content  in  speech.  Torres  Strait  lay  invitingly  open 
before  the  fleeing  Polynesians;  we  can  see  no  reason  why  they  should  not 
follow  that  course.  I  contend  that  we  do  find  linguistic  monuments  of  their 
passage. 


THE  SUBANU 

Studies  of  a  Sub-Visayan  Mountain  Folk 
OF  Mindanao 


Part  III. 

Subanu-English  Vocabulary 
English-Subanu  Vocabulary 
A  Partial  Bibliography 


SUBANU-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY. 


a  thou,     (ga,  iga,  ya,  nia,  niya.) 

dali  a  manece,  go  thou  up  hurriedly. 
ioma  a  logmo  song  neen,  why  blamest 
thou  him? 

V  ca,  second  personal  singular  pronoun, 

nominative,  always  postpositive. 
a-  a  composition  prefix  (Visayan  ca-). 

a.  used  singly: 

abagol  alisod  atalao 

abolo  alongas  atoc 

abotang 

b.  in  conjunction  with  suffix  -an  or  -on; 

abilingan       alobungan      atandanan 
alanganan      aloonan  atapusan 

alibutan         amatayon       atodanan 
alipayan 
aao  cacao.     (Spanish  cacao.) 

aaoan  cacao  orchard. 
aba  alas. 

aba,  abagol  mo  cogool,  alas,  what  great 
pain! 

V  abaa,  interjection  of  grief  or  wonder. 
abagol  Cf.  bagol. 

abayo  {cabayo)  horse.    (Spanish  caballo.) 

abilingan  Cf.  biling. 

abolo  Cf.  bolo. 

abotang  Cf.  botang. 

agen  I. 

agom  to  enjoy. 

pocagagom  enjoyment. 

V  agom,  to  enjoy. 
aguanta  Cf.  nocpigaguanta. 

alaan  adverbial  modifier  used  with  bisan  to 
convey  the  sense  that  the  word  with 
which  it  is  employed  is  used  in  a 
sense  absolute,  see  the  same  usage 
of  somala  alandon. 
pegotaran  sog  bisan  alaan,  headpiece, 
caption. 

alaik 

alaik  punanen,  alaik  sabab,  why,  rea- 
son, cause. 

alalaat  mercy.     Cf.  laat. 

V  alaot,  interjection  of  pain. 
alandon  adverbial  modifier  in  the  sense  of 

alaan,  used  with  somala  and  less  fre- 
quently with  bisan,  generally  post- 
positive, but  sometimes  precedes  the 
word  or  phrase  which  it  modifies. 

pocaoid  somala  alandon,  to  attach,  to 
seize. 

di  poggolat  sog  bisan  alandon,  to  elimi- 
nate. 

somala  alandon  nong  molingin,  glo- 
bular. 

bisan  alandon  sogbobaan,  to  put  into 
a  basket. 
alanganan  Cf.  langan. 
alibutan  Cf.  libot. 


alipayan  Cf.  lipay. 
alisod  Cf.  lisod. 
alobungan  Cf.  lobung. 
alongas  Cf.  longas. 
aloonan  Cf.  loon, 
amaaron  Cf.  aron. 
amatayon  Cf.  matay. 
amatene  Cf.  matay. 
ambit  to  share. 

pogambit  to  impart. 

V  ambit,  to  share,  to  hold  in  common,  to 

communicate. 
ami  we  (exclusive). 

Kolon:  hami.     Bima:  nami. 
amo  you.     (gamo,  lamo,  yamo.) 

V  camo,  second  personal  pronoun  plural. 
-an  suffix,  see  a-,  ca-. 

anahau  a  tree  whose  long  leaves  are  used  in 

religious  dances. 
anding  goat. 

V  canding,  id. 

antocos  spectacles.  (Spanish  anteojos). 
Iberian  barbarism  has  treated  the  semi- 
vowel j  after  a  manner  which  richly  illus- 
trates the  possibilities  of  phonetic  degra- 
dation. In  present  Castilian,  which  is  one 
of  the  few  languages  of  Europe  which  car- 
ries the  aspirate  proximate  to  each  of  the 
three  speech  organs,  the  j  has  an  h  value. 
In  Latin  America  and  in  California  of  our 
own  continental  area  an  elder  phase  of  the 
Castilian,  or  a  distinct  Iberian  dialect,  has 
prevailed,  and  we  hear  for  j  the  compound 
of  palatal  surd  mute  with  the  preface  of 
the  palatal  nasal,  ngk;  thus  vulgo  in  Cali- 
fornia Los  Angeles  has  become  Angkeles, 
and  San  Jose,  stopping  a  little  short  of  the 
bottom  of  the  palatal  column,  is  Sangk- 
hose.  Here,  in  dominions  oversea  which 
we  have  acquired  from  the  errant  Spaniard 
we  meet  once  again  this  mutation  clear 
across  the  palatal  tract;  the  point  arising 
in  languages  of  less  complex  structure  will 
be  found  discussed  at  some  length  at  page 
20  of  Easter  Island. 

antosan  to  bear,  to  endure,     (gantoson.) 
sogmolomo  antosan,  bearable,  light. 

V  antos,  to  bear,  to  suffer. 
ang  an  article. 

V  ang,  nominative  article  of  appellative 

nouns. 
angay  to  take,     (gangay.) 

pogangay  nog  rongog,  slander,  defama- 
tion. 
sogmogangay  nog  dongog,  slanderer. 
aoid  to  grasp. 

pocaoid  somala  alandon,  to  attach,  to 
seize. 

V  haoid,  to  detain,  to  seize,  to  hold. 

179 


180 


THE   SUBANU. 


apote  {capote)  coat.     (Spanish  capote.) 
apote  doon   igbongcon   noc  ponopoton 
nong  moreipol  gobonong    mogonao, 
greatcoat. 
apujungal  a  forest  spirit  with  the  head  of  a 
man  on  the  body  of  a  pig;  it  must 
be  propitiated  by  boar  hunters. 
aromanan  a  relative. 
arugo  oath. 
aron  like,  similar. 

moni  aron  noc  taliaman,  a  spear. 
maaron  like,  the  same,  identical. 
mananap  maaron  nog  osa,  gazelle. 
maaron  nog  leen  noc  pomotangon,  iden- 
tical. 
bosi  maaron  noc  talloma,  javelin. 
gondi  maaron,  disagreement. 
di  maaron,  dissimilar. 
pocomaaron,  identity. 
amaaron  gosaca,  identically. 
nong  maaron,  imitation. 
sogondaay  tundongon  noc  pacanaoron, 
delusive. 
momaaron 

mananap  momaaron  no  guicos,  civet 
cat. 
arunaan  rich,  wealthy,  renowned. 

V  arunahan,  rich. 
asoang  enchanter. 

V  asoang,  wizard,  ghost. 
atalao  Cf.  talao. 

atandanan    (a  :  tondong  :  an,  cf.  atoda- 
nan,  tondong). 
poctoman  noc  atandanan,  to  satisfy. 

V  catongdanan,  that  which  is  due. 
atapusan  Cf.  tapus. 

atoc  (a  :  toe)  to  guess. 

V  tagna,  to  conjecture,  to  prognosticate, 

to  prophesy,  to  guess  a  riddle,  to 
solve  a  problem. 
atodanan   (a  :  tondong  :  an,  cf.  atanda- 
nan, tondong). 

V  catongdanan,  obligation,  to  owe;  ton- 

god,  to  belong,  to  pertain  to. 
atop  roof.     Cf .  gatop. 

poctolo  nongog  atop,  to  rain. 

V  atop,  roof,  thatch.     Kayan :  ato,  thatch. 

Bugis:  atok,  id.     Samoa:  ato,  id. 
atud  (hatud)  to  carry. 

pocoatud,  carriage,  transport, 
sogmogatod,  carrier,  conductor. 

V  hatod,  to  carry,  to  bear. 
au  I. 

ayac  appetite,  liking  for  food. 
gayac  afTectionately. 

gayac  so  gombagol,  lovingly. 
mayac  to  love. 

molomo  mayac,  inclined  to  love,  of  a 

loving  disposition. 
ang  mayac,  lover. 
nogayac  lovingly. 

sognigasoy  sonnem  nogayac,  a  lover. 

ba  interrogative  particle. 

maligos  ba  ttigaling,  is  he  worse. 

V  ba,  note  of  interrogation. 


baa  flood. 

haa  noc  tubig,  overflow  of  rivers,  spate, 
freshet. 

V  baha,  flood,  freshet. 
baag  loin  cloth. 

baal  to  make.     Cf.  balon,  binaal. 
pogbaal,  to  form,  to  shape. 
socpogbaal,  efficiency. 
gaom    socpogbaal,   faculty    of    mind, 

efiiciencj'. 
sogmigbaal  nog  balay,  builder,  archi- 
tect. 
socsocalbaalan,  executable,  susceptible 

of  being  made. 
bonoa  noc  pogbaalan,  workshop. 
baal  to  work  in  the  fields,  to  till  the  soil. 

Cf.  balan,  binal,  beninalan. 
mogbaal  lamo  noc  sulal,  did  you  work 

in  the  orchard? 
moomogbaal,  laborer. 
nogmigbaal    sog    lopa,    day    laborer, 

farmer. 
sogmigbaal,  laborer. 
pogbaal  somala  alandon,   to  till  the 

soil. 
sogondi  mayac  mogbaal  moglanglaang, 

idler,  vagabond,  loafer. 

V  baol,  to  till  the  soil. 
baalbaal  Cf.  balbal. 

baangan  to  find,  to  meet,  to  encounter, 
baat  pogbaat,  to  chain. 

V  pagbaat,  id. 

baba  the  edge  of  a  knife. 
baba  the  mouth. 

tundong  sa  cabayo  nga  sangol  sog  baba, 
bit. 

V  baba,  mouth.    Ma.tu:  baba,  id.    Kayan: 

ba,  id. 
baba  to  carry  by  land. 

This  may  be  a  scrivener's  error  for  bala 
to  carry  a  load  (Visayan  bala  in  that  sense) ; 
at  the  same  time  it  is  equally  possible  that 
it  is  Polynesian  fafa  to  carry  on  the  back. 
baba  down,  under. 

dien  ha  baba,  from  the  bottom. 
baboy  pig. 

baboy  talon,  wild  boar. 

baboy  talon  boloog,  wild  sow. 

bool  noc  paa  nog  baboy,  slice  of  pork. 

laneg  baboy,  lard. 

gunud  baboy,  pork. 

V  baboy,   pig.     Bontoc   Igorot:  fdfuy, 

boar. 
bacalan 

libong  bo  bacalan  noc  tobon  nog  dina- 

mog  bata,  a  barren  female. 
bacoao  heel. 
badi  a  nervous  spell. 
badya  the  Visayan  plow,  a  bent  stick  drawn 

by  carabao,  not  used  by  the  Subanu. 
baga  lung. 

V  baga,  id. 
baga  arrogant. 

pocobaga,  arrogantly,  loftily,  in  a  dis- 
pleasing manner,  offensive, 

V  pagcahobag,  arrogant. 


SUBANU-ENGUSH   VOCABULARY. 


181 


baga  live  coals. 

baga  tondong  noc  abolo  no  gapoy,  igni- 
tion, combustion,  burning. 
pagbaga  noc  potao,  to  weld  iron. 

V  baga,  live  coals. 
baga  the  shoulder. 

Bontoc  Igorot:  poko,  id. 
bagas  Cf.  begas. 

bagas  niais,  meal,  flour. 
bagol  large,  great. 
abagol 

boligan  nong  nga  abagol,  a  large  wild 

bee. 
aba,  abagol  mo  cogool,  alas,  what  great 
pain! 
gom  bagol 

gayac  so  gombagol,  lovingly. 
gombagol  noc  palongan  noc  pogogasan 

somala  alandon,  trough. 
gotao  gombagol  noc  sopingi,  fleshy. 
gotao  noc  socogan  gopia  gombagol  nog- 

lana,  a  person  of  great  strength. 
pogogovitan  somala  nog  gare  so  gomba- 
gol noc  lonsod,  language,  idiom. 
macabagol 

macabagol  noc  tian,  potbelly. 
noctibagol 

soc  lupa  noctibagol  guinale,  glebe. 
nogom  bagol 

golo  nogombagol,  lintel. 
milipay  yo  nogombagol,  I  am  verj'  glad. 
liga  nogombagol,  blaze,  fire  light. 
teguib  nogombagol,  a  large  chisel. 
calaatan  nogombagol,  injustice. 
domomog  nogombagol,  thick  heavy  lips, 
sogmebagolan 

sogmebagolan    nog    damomog,     thick 
lipped. 
bahagi  to  part. 
bahal 

dangal  bahal,  a  tree  growing  in  the 
center  of  the  sea. 
bahin  part. 

bai  lady,  princess  (Moro). 
bais  (embais)  beautiful,  good  conduct. 
bakes  a  girdle. 

bakes  panit,  a  leather  belt. 
bal 

bed  nogondi  socal  so  catorongan,  injust- 
ice. 
pombaal,  to  bring  false  witness,  per- 
jury. 
ponbaal,  calumny. 
balagon  a  vine. 

balagon  nog  bolaan,  a  creeping  vine. 

V  balagon,  every  kind  of  climbing  vine 

or  plant  which  employs  tendrils  for 
its  support. 
balan  Cf.  baal. 

lopa  nogompia  balan,  arable. 
balani 

bato  balani,  lodestone. 

V  batong  balani,  id. 
bal  at  west  wind. 
balay  house,  building. 

balay  noc  poctonaoan  noc  potao  nog 
melamogampa  nog  lupa,  ironworks. 


balay — continued. 

lopa  mogondapa  balay  gorocan  bo  po- 
wo/onan,  uncultivated,uninhabited. 

sogmigbaal  nog  balay,  builder,  archi- 
tect. 

gosog  nog  balay,  head  of  household  or 
family. 

gampu  nog  balay,  settlement  of  four  or 
five  houses,  hamlet,  village. 

V  balay,  house,  abode  of  man  or  beast. 
balbal  (baalbaal)  enchanter. 

V  balbal,  witch,  wizard,  ghost. 
bale  ah,  alas. 

balian  (babalian,walian)men  and  women 
who  perform  ceremonies  in  honor 
of  the  gods;  spirits  of  the  gods. 
bala  balian,  child  spirits. 

balibad  excuse. 

V  balibad,  to  excuse,  to  free  of  blame. 
balidya  to  sell. 

nocpogbalidya,   factor,   trader,   mer- 
chant. 

V  baligya,  to  sell,  to  trade  by  land  or  sea. 

Bima:  belt,  to  sell. 
balidyaan 

bonua  nocpogbalidyaan  nonogong  ma- 
noc,  cockpit,   place  of  betting  on 
fowls. 
balilid  to  lie  down,  to  recline. 
baling  a  cloth  girdle  or  belt. 

baling  somala  alandon  jabas  matas  bo 
moloctin,  bandage. 

V  baling,  net  of  coarse  texture. 
balingawa  spider. 

Bontoc  Igorot:  kdaowa,  id. 
balingdagat  shore,  strand,  seacoast.     Cf. 

dagat. 
baled  a  wave. 

pocdanlag  nog  balod,  dashing  of  the 
sea,  surf. 

V  balod,  waves  of  the  sea  or  river. 
baloganan 

gabo  pagbaloganan,  fireplace,  hearth. 
balon  Cf.  baal. 

malomo  balon,  feasible. 

socsocalbalon,  feasible. 

sogsocalbalon,  workable. 

pocolomo  balon  somala  alandon,  ability. 
balon  provisions,  food,  ration. 

V  balon,  provisions. 
bales  lie,  untruth,  fallacy. 

pogdonot  sogpoctoon  nog  balos  soc  poc- 
cano,  to  be  heathen. 

tontoltontol  balos  nog  mibatog  sog  Ion- 
sod,  rumor,  little  tale,  gossip. 

pocbalos,  to  tell  lies. 
balosen  impostor,  cheat. 
balu 

balu  nog  lee,  a  widower. 

balu  nog  libun,  a  widow. 

bata  nog  balu  libun,  a  widow's  son. 
Kayan:  balu,  widow. 
bandela  banner.     (Spanish  bandera.) 

sogmogoit  nog  bandela, standard  bearer. 
bandi  a  jar. 
bandian 

lee  nog  bandian,  a  wealthy  man. 


182 


THE   SUBANU. 


banig  to  soften. 
banta  enemy. 
bantug  fame. 
bang 

gat  bang,  to  face. 
bangitao  alligator,  crocodile. 

V  balanghitao,  id. 
bangot  beard. 

poggatad  poctoUn  nog  bangot,  to  get  a 
beard. 

V  bongot,  facial  hair. 
bangon  fine,  blood  money  (Sulu). 
barong  fighting  knife. 

basa  to  read. 

basa  6  sulat,  to  read. 

maya  nia  ce  pagbasa,  read  thou  quietly. 

V  basa,  to  read.  Bontoc  Igorot :  fasdek,  id. 
basa  (bosa)  to  respect. 

sogantol  nog  basa,  irreverent. 
pocgondaay  basanon,  irreverence, 
pocbasa  to  respect. 
basac  mud. 

socmoglerme  nog  basac,  plasterer. 
basacan  mud. 
basting  a  bell. 
basu  a  cup. 

basulan  repentance.   Cf.  inunsulan,  gui- 
nonsola. 

V  basol,  to  repent. 

bata  child,  offspring,  son,  daughter. 

bata  noc  poraigon  gopia  bo  longaran- 

don,  a  spoiled  child. 
mitondong  nog  bata,  juvenile. 
libong  bo  bacalan  noc  tobon  nog  dina- 

mog  bata,  a  barren  female. 
panday  negmegbata,  midwife. 
bata  balian,  child  spirit. 
bata  ilu,  orphan. 
bata  lagi,  a  small  male  chUd. 
bata  tiibig,  a  creek,  small  stream. 
bata  bulan,  new  moon,  the  first  eighth 

of  the  moon. 
gektu  bata  bulan,  the  second  eighth  of 

the  moon. 
batabata  a  baby. 

V  bata,  child. 

batad  a  custom.    Cf.  batasan,  botasan. 
batang  a  log. 

batang  soong,  bridge  of  the  nose. 
batangan 

batangan  laget,  tobacco  box. 
batasan  (batad)  all  the  customs  of  a  people. 

socalan  igbutasan,  to  abolish. 

V  batasan,  custom,  law,  disposition. 
batasan  (bata)  mischievousness. 
bate  brother-in-law. 

batirol  chocolate  pot. 

V  batirol,  id. 

batit  young  of  animals. 

battt  utung,  yoimg  monkey. 
batiti  a  large  bat. 
bato  (batu)  stone. 

bato  balani,  loadstone. 

nga  binaal  bato,  to  work  stone. 

V  bato,  stone  of  every  sort.     Bontoc  Igo- 

rot: bato,  id. 


batog  to  call. 
mibatog 

tontoltontol  balos  nogmibatog  sog  lonsod, 
rumor,  gossip. 

V  batog,  to  accost,  to  call  birds. 
baton  to  educate.     Cf.  toonan. 

V  baton,  id. 
bawang  a  place. 

bawang  ec  daan,  doorway. 
gampu  nog  bawattg,  village,  hamlet. 
baya  manner. 

baya  gopia,  gallantly. 
baya  no  gotao,  human. 
palo  baya,  humbly. 
sogombaya 

sogombaya  nog  moloonnog  magleinlein, 
a  relative. 
bayad  fright. 
begas  (begus,  bagus),  husked    rice.     Cf. 

bagas. 
begelal  important  men  in  a  village. 
begyaan  cultivated  field. 
bekna  first. 
belagel  shoulder-blade. 
belema  to-morrow.     Cf.  lema,  luma. 
belen  loom. 
belilu 

gagun  sinam  belilu,  sound  of  a  gong 
which  summons  the  midwife  to  her 
function. 
belintis  shinbone,  tibia.     Cf.  lintisan. 
bencong  adze. 

V  bingcong,  id. 

beninalan  (b  :  en  :  inal  :  an)  cultivated  field. 
Cf.  binal. 
locao  sog  beninalan,  cottage. 
benoiran  (b  :  en  :  oir:  an)  hill.     Cf.  bod. 
atapusan  sog  benoiran,  hilltop,  summit. 
bengawan  (b  :  eng  :  awan)  a  place.     Cf. 
bawang,  bunguan. 
bengawan  nog  gobal,  a  place  where 
smoke  may  escape  from  a  house,  a 
chimney. 
biag  servant,  slave. 

biag  nog  mitom,  a  black  slave. 

V  bihag,  a  slave. 
bibig  lips. 

bichara  great  conferences  of  the  gods  and 
balian  in  the  sky,  or  of  chiefs  on 
earth. 

bigibigi  seed. 

bila  friend. 

V  abian,  id.    Kolon,  Bima:  bela,  id. 
bilibili  deer,  sheep,  goat. 

bilin  inheritance. 

socmicpongon  noc  cabilinan   nogondi 
socalpogboclagan,  patrimony. 

V  bilin,  inheritance,  patrimony. 
biting  difficult. 

abilingan  (a  :  biling  :  an)  difficulty. 
sogondaay  abilingan  somala  alandon, 

easy. 
nog  abilingan  nog  micaolang,  to  facili- 
tate. 

V  biling,  difficulty,  mistrust. 
bilu  blue.     (?  English.) 

gabilunen  (ga  :  bilu  :  nen)  blueness. 


SUBANU-ieNGIylSH  VOCABULARY. 


183 


binaal  (b  :  in  :  aal)  to  make.  Cf.  baal. 

nga  binaal  bato,  to  work  stone. 
binabalay  a  large  table  or  altar.    Cf.  balay. 
binal  field  of  rice  paddy.     Cf.  baal,  beni- 
nalan. 

V  baol,  a  rice  field. 

binalan  a  field  just  cleared  for  cultivation. 

binaya  footprint. 

bino  wine.     (Spanish  vino.) 

binagel  sugar. 

binocot  monk,  nun. 

gosog  sog  binocot,  abbess. 

V  binnocot,  hermit,  monk,  friar. 
binutong  (b  :  in  :  utong). 

soy  on  noc  sulut  binutong,  emblem. 

V  ibotang,  on  one  side  and  the  other. 
bingcon  arm. 

V  bocton,  botcon,  id. 
bingguil 

nocmacabingguil  sa  gontpia  nog  buot 

poctobe,  detractor. 
biring  domestic  cat. 
bisan  adverbial  modifier  used  with a/oan  and 

alandon,  though,  notwithstanding. 

V  bisan,  though,  notwithstanding. 
bitegel  necklace. 

bitun  a  star. 

genit  bitun,  a  meteor,  shooting  star. 

V  bitoon,  star. 
bityala  lawsuit. 
biyanan  the  bit  of  a  bridle. 
bo  (bu)  or,  and. 

boangboang  (buangbuang)  imbecile,  fool- 
ish. 
gotao  nog  boangboang,  enchanted. 

V  boangboang,  foolish,  crazy. 
boaya  alligator,  crocodile. 

V  boaya,  id.     Bontoc  Igorot:  fudya,  id. 
(loan  word). 

bobaan  a  small  basket. 

bobaan  nog  molipotot,  a  large  round 

basket. 
bisan  alandon  sogbobaan,  to  put  into  a 
basket. 
bo  bo  a.  fool.     (Spanish  bobo.) 
bobonayan 

bobonayan  noc  tondo,  the  space  be- 
tween the  knuckles. 
bocbaac  a  little  green  frog. 

V  baq  u  i ,  a  frog.    Bontoc  Igorot :  fdkfak,  id . 
boclag  to  separate. 

boclag  ondi  somogot,  defection. 
pocboclag  dispersion. 

pocboclag  soc  gotao  nga  soay,  divorce, 
boclagon 

socmicpongon  noc  cabilinan  nogondi 
socalpogboclagon,  heritage,  patri- 
mony. 

V  bolag,  to  separate  in  general. 
bocposon  a  little  whelp,  pup. 
bocsoc  nail,  spike. 

boctasan  to  hiccup. 

pocolog  nog  guilid  sopogloguinaod  boc- 
tasan, to  pant,  to  palpitate. 

bod  a  hillock  or  mound  of  earth.     Cf.  bulud, 
benoiran. 


bogay  (bugay)  to  supply;  a  gift. 

bogayan  gaco  noc  tubig,  give  me  water. 
malibogayan  giver. 
pagbogay  somala  alandon,  to  form,  to 

shape. 
socsocalbogayan  nog  hen,  aUenable. 
bogguiong  a  trumpet. 

V  bodyong,  id. 
bogotondo  knuckle.     Cf.  tondo. 
bogogu  ankle.     Kolon:  bungu,  id.     Bima: 

bunggu,  id. 
bogondaay  Cf.  daay. 
bogutao  a  boy  at  puberty. 
boi  to  fire  a  cannon. 

y  bohi,  id. 
boid  wages.     Cf.  buis. 

gotao  sogboid,  day  laborer. 
Bontoc  Igorot:  ifu-bowis-an,  taxes. 
boktol  rump. 
bolaan 

balagon  nog  bolaan,  a  creeping  vine. 

V  bolacan,  a  climbing  vine. 
bolao  red. 

poctina  noc  bolao,  to  dye  red. 

V  paolao,  red. 
bolibod  crown  of  the  head. 
bolic  poison. 

bolig  to  carry  by  land. 

V  bala,  id. 
boligan  a  large  fly. 

boligan  nong  nga  abagol,  a  large  wild. 

bee. 
boligan  macalintoc,  a  small  wild  bee. 
Bontoc  IgoTot :  faolengan,  bumblebee. 
bolit  to  varnish. 

V  bolit,  id. 

(bollo)  pogbollo  to  tire  oneself. 
bolo  ferocious,  brave,  courageous. 
bolo  tugaling,  ferocity. 
abolo 

pocgangay  noc  capintas  abolo  socog, 

to  enervate,  to  debilitate. 
baga  tondong  noc  abolo  no  gapoy,  igni- 
tion, burning. 
pocabolo  tugaling,  inhumanly. 
cabolo 

cabolo  so  posong,  com-age. 
macabolo  brave,  courageous. 
(bolobod)  sogmogbolobod  revolving. 
bolong  to  heal. 

pomolanon  pia  nog  bolong,  galium. 
sogondaay  bolong,  irremediably. 
pocbolong  to  cure. 
bolong  to  abandon. 
boloog  a  breeding  sow. 

baboy  talon  boloog,  sow  of  wild  swine. 
boloy 

galad  nog  llayan  lanas  socpogboloy  noc 
sura  soc  tubigan,  a  cane  enclosure 
for  catching  fish. 
bombol   fur,   hair,   feathers   (not  used  of 
human  hair). 
poctubo  sog  bombol  nog  manocmanoc, 
to  become  fledged. 
bonal  to  smite,  to  strike,  to  beat. 

pogbonal  noc  penoto,  cutlass  stroke. 

V  bonal,  to  beat. 


184 


THE   SUBANU. 


bondyag  to  baptize. 

V  bonyag,  id. 

bone  germ,  sprout,  bud. 

V  binhi,  id. 
bono  to  kill. 

malibonoay    sog    nga    gombata    nong 

mieca,  child-slayer. 
sogmighono,  infanticide. 

V  bono,  to  assassinate,  to  slay. 
bono  (bunu)  enemy,  against. 
bonoa  place,  land. 

honoa  nog  napo,  field. 

bonoa  noc  pogbaalan,  workshop. 

bonoa   noc   tubigan,    puddle,    marsh, 

swamp. 
nila  bonua  noc  tiuan,  beehive. 
bonua    nocolonan    nocpoc    tobora,    a 

spring. 
bonua  noc  pogbalidyyan  nongong  ma- 

noc,  cockpit. 
bonua    nocpoc    picnogan    nog    bonga, 

place  for  ripening. 
pogdolan  nog  bunua,  to  obscure  the 
land. 

V  banoa,  banua,  place. 
bonoa!  town. 

bontal  full,  replete. 
bontol  to  beat. 

pagbontol  soc  poloapomopoton,  to  beat 
cloth. 
bonug  to  hear. 
bong 

labong  yesterday. 
lalabong  afternoon. 

V  cahapon,  yesterday. 
bonga  Cf.  bunga. 
bongcon 

apote  doon  igbongcon   noc  ponopoton 
nong   moreipol   gobonong  mogonao, 
greatcoat. 
booc  hair  of  the  head. 

gotao  nong  motaas  nog  booc,  hairy. 
caloonan  nog  booc,  false  hair. 
boocan  false  hair,  hairy. 

V  bohoc,  hair  of  the  head.     Bontoc  Igo- 

rot:  fook,  id. 
boocon  to  divide. 

sogondi  maimo  guilaso  boocon,  indivis- 
ible. 
boogon 

gaan  noc  potocon  boogon  noc  tonob  so- 
mala  alandon  nong  mobogbog,  cakes. 
bool 

bool  noc  paa  nog  baboy,  rasher,  slice  of 
pork. 
boot  to  judge.     Cf.  bout,  buot. 

malaal  nog  boot,  hatred,  displeasure. 
colang  sog  boot,  imbecile. 
pocboot  to  govern. 
magboot  governor. 
pogboot  to  command. 
sogmogboot  commander. 

sopagboot  nogogolingon,  imperiously. 
bootan   judicious,   ripe   in  judgment, 
mature. 

V  boot,  to  judge;  bootan,  prudent,  judi- 

cious. 


boros  pregnant. 
bosa  Cf.  basa. 
bosacan  to  fall  into  a  pit. 
bosi  spear. 

bosi  maaron  noctalloma,  a  javelin. 

bosi  doon  ec  somagan,  a  lance. 
bota  a  building. 
botang  condition. 

abotang  (a  :  botang)  ease. 

malaat  no  abotang,  ill  at  ease. 

V  pagcabotang,  manner  of  being. 
botasan  habit.     Cf.  batad,  batasan. 

sogtnalaat  nog  botasan,  rogue,  swind- 
ler. 
mibotasan  to  accustom. 

V  pag botasan,  to  accustom, 
botis  foot. 

botomicaon  boy.     Cf.  bata. 

bout  to  desire,  to  like.     Cf.  boot,  buot. 

boutolon 

pogosig  noquito  nocpogboutolon,  howl- 
ing of  a  dog. 

bu  (bo)  and,  or. 

buai  (bwal)  a  spring  of  water. 

buanan  fireplace,  hearth. 

buangbuang  Cf.  boangboang. 

buat  to  emanate. 

buat  soc  poglibon  no  gotao,  venereal 

disease. 
pigbuatan     somala     alandon,     germ, 
sprout,  bud. 

bugay  Cf.  bogay. 

bui  mountain,  forest. 

V  boquid,  mountain.     Bicol:  buquid,  id: 

Magindano:     puked,    id.     Malay: 
bukit,  id.     Cf.  Samoa:  pu'e. 
buis   (buhis)   tribute,   tax  paid  to  chiefs. 
Cf.  boid. 
pocsuquit   noc  paldon  sogmigbuis,  to 

enroll  in  a  census. 
gantang  buhisan,  a  basket  measure  of 
rice. 
Bontoc  Igovot:  ft"iys,  taxes. 
bukar  a  small  table  or  altar. 
bukid  land,  field,  soil,  farm,  country  (Taga- 
log). 
bukid  na  sinasaka,  land  under  tilth. 
buklug 

a.  A  festival  propitiatory  of  the  gods  or  in 

general  celebration  of  some  memo- 
rable event. 

buklug  puluntu,  festival  for  the  aged 
dead  or  for  those  long  dead. 

buklug  pimala,  festival  for  the  young 
dead  or  for  those  recently  dead. 

buklug  timala,  festival  for  the  infant 
dead  or  those  dead  but  lately. 

b.  a  dancing  platform. 
buksai  war-cry. 
buktin  a  sucking  pig. 
bulac  flower. 

V  bolac,  flower. 
bulan  moon,  month. 

bata  bulan,  new  moon,  first  eighth  of 

the  moon. 
gektu  bata  bulan,  second  eighth. 
gektu  gulang  bulan,  fifth  eighth. 


SUBANU-ENGLISH   VOCABULARY. 


185 


bulan — continued. 

minsan  liti  gulang  bulan,  sixth  eighth. 
manamat    bulan,    evil    spirits   which 

cause  the  moon  to  disappear. 
gelektu  langit  bulan,  good  spirits  which 

bring  back  the  moon  and  keep  its 

face  clear. 

V  bulan,  bolan,  moon,  month.     Bontoc 

Igorot:/MaM,  bilan,  moon,  month. 
bulatuk  a  spirit  bird  that  determines  the 
best  site  for   a  house;  if  the  bird 
perches  on  the  beams   of  a   new 
house  the  site  must  be  abandoned. 
bulawan  (buluan)  gold. 
bulinga  egg. 

bulud  hill.     Cf.  bod.     (b  :  ul  :  ud). 
buludbulud  hillock. 
gabuludan  (ga :  bulud :  an)  hilly  region. 
bunu  Cf.  bono, 
bunua  Cf.  bonoa. 
bunga  (bonga) 

a.  fruit. 

bonua    nocpoc    piaiogan    nog   bonga, 
place  for  ripening  fruit. 

b.  areca  palm  nut  used  in  betel  chewing. 

c.  kidney. 

V  bonga,  fruit. 

bunguan  gateway.     Cf.  bengawan. 
buot  (bout,  boot)  will. 

paubos  nog  btcot,  discouragement. 

colang  sog  boot,  imbecile. 

penonogonan  sogogolingong  nog  buot, 
abnegation. 

culang  nog  buot,  silly. 

V  boot,  will. 
buta  to  enroll. 

pogbuta  noc  pegotaran  noc  suquit,  to 
enroll  in  a  census. 

V  botang,  to  place,  to  deposit. 
butaal  wild  boar. 

butang  to  place,  to  put. 

pocbutang  guison,  to  put  into  a  basket. 

V  botang,  to  place,  to  deposit. 
buun  a  jar  valued  at  i2|  piculs  of  rice. 
buyo  the  leaf  used  in  betel  chewing. 
buyun  swollen  neck,  goitre. 

ca-   a  composition   prefix    (Visayan  ca-). 
Cf.  a-. 

a.  used  singly: 

cabolo  calongas        casamoc 

calingin  capintas 

b.  in  conjunction  with  suffix  -an  or  -on : 

cabilinan        camatayon    casayoran 
calaatan         capolosan      catorongan 
caloonan 
caban  box,  chest. 

poquipos  somala  alandon  soglogua  noc 
caban,  to  pack  into  a  trunk.   

V  caban,  chest,  box,  trunk. 

cabayo  (abayo)  horse.    (Spanish  caballo.) 
tundong  sa  cabayo  nga  sangol  sog  baba, 
bit. 
cabilinan  Cf.  bilin. 
cabolo  Cf.  bolo. 


(cabolong)  poccabolong  drunken. 
cahoy  tree. 

catnote  cahoy,  cassava. 

V  cahoy,  tree. 
calaatan  Cf.  laat. 

(calauat)  paccalauat  to  confess  and  take 
communion. 

V  calaoat,  to  receive  in  general,  specifi- 

cally to  take  communion. 
calingin  Cf.  lingin. 
caliuanag  Cf.  liu. 

caliuatiag  no  calingin,  warped. 
calontinay  a  large  fly. 
calongas  Cf.  longas. 
caloonan  Cf.  loon, 
camatayon  Cf.  matay. 
camote   sweet   potato.      (Spanish   camote, 
Aztec  camotl,  Quichua  kumar.) 

camote  cahoy,  cassava. 
cana  to  eat.     Cf.  gaan. 

mi  naan  cana,  hast  thou  dined? 

V  canon,   daily   food.     Bontoc   Igorot: 

kanek,  mdkan,  mdngan,  to  eat. 
capintas  Cf.  pintas. 
capolosan  Cf.  polos, 
capote  (apote)  cloak.     (Spanish  capote.) 

poclabon  sa  capote,  to  cloak. 
carongo  arrival,  coming. 
casamoc  Cf.  samoc. 
casayoran  Cf.  sayor. 
casit  to  pass. 

pocgondaay  casit,  impassable,  impassa- 
bility. 

V  saqult,  to  pass. 
casoon 

casoon  guiadman,  ability. 
catorongan  Cf.  torong. 
catubo  Cf.  tobo. 
caya  this,  that. 

ulimo  caya,  return  that  to. 

V  cana,  this,  that. 
cisabaon  Cf.  sabao. 
coendoc  Cf.  ondoc. 
cogool  pain. 

aba,  abagol  mo  cogool,  alas,  what  great 
pain. 

V  olol,  pain. 

colang  (culang)  to  lack,  to  want. 

colang  sog  boot,  imbecile. 

gongog  culang  nog  buot,  silly. 
compinsal  to  confess.    (Spanish  confesar.) 

pocompinsal,  to  make  one's  confession. 
Vcompisal,  id. 
cone-no-gondao  to-day. 
conotconot  to  tuck. 

ming  conotconot  da  ig  viste,  to  purse  up 
the  gown. 

V  conot,  to  double,  to  fold. 
congol  to  dwell. 

picongolan  habitation,  dwelling,  lodg- 
ing. 
pocongolan  to  inhabit. 

song  mopia  pocongolan,  habitable. 
sogondaay  pocongolan,  uninhabited. 
pocongolan  nog  nila  noc  tioan,  queen- 
bee  cell. 


186 


THE   SUBANU. 


corala  Cf.  dald. 

pagcorala  deficit. 

V  pagcaoala,  id. 
cota  (cotu)  wall. 

cota  nog  lombos  lupa,  a  wall  between 
fields. 

V  cota, id. 

cotat  to  swing,  to  move  from  side  to  side. 
cotecote  to  weary,  to  molest. 

V  coticoti,  to  weary  with  unimportant 

details. 
cotooto  the  stomach. 

V  cotocoto,  id. 
culang  Cf.  colang. 

cutao  (cu  :  tao)  iron.   Cf.  potao,  tonaoan. 

da  no,  not. 

sogonda,  not. 

sogonda  inog,  imseasonable. 
da 

m  ing  conotconot  da  ig  viste,  to  purse  up 
the  gown. 
daag  to  gain,  to  win. 

V  daog,  to  win  in  battle. 
daan  road,  path.     Cf.  dalan. 

casayoran  nog  daan,  itinerary. 
bawang  ec  daan,  doorway. 

V  dalan,  road. 
daan  old. 

lotang  nog  daan,  ancient  piece  of  ar- 
tillery. 

ponopoton  nog  daan,  old  ragged 
clothes. 

V  daan,  any  old  thing. 

daap  not  yet.     (Visayan  pa,  yet.) 
ondaapa 

golang  guisip  nogondaapa  tnobiaray, 

unliquidated. 
lopa   mogondaapa   balay   gorocan    bo 

pomolonan,  uncultivated. 
ondaapa  mooay,  unliquidated. 
daay  no,  none. 

mananap    nong    mica    daay    ngalan, 
animal  which  has  no  name. 
daayron  there  is  not.     Cf.  taron,  I  do 

not  know. 
gondaay  no,  not. 

gondaay  soboton,  idiocy. 
gondaay  gaom,  idiocy. 
bogondaay 

gotao  bogondaay  gaom,  idiot. 
nogondaay 

gotao  nogondaay  sabuton,  idiot. 
nogondaay  masin,  unsalted. 
lopa  nong  napo  nogondaay  magpondo- 
pondo,  a  plain. 
pocgondaay 

pocgondaay  basanon,  irreverence. 
pocogondaay 

pocogondaay  sonan,  ignorance. 
pocogondaay  gaom,  ignorance. 
sogondaay 

sogondaay   dason   malaat   pigondian, 

unlawful. 
sogondaay  motagam,  unskilled. 
sogondaay  tundongon  noc  pacanaoron, 
delusive. 


daay — continued. 

sogondaay  ahilingan  somala  alandon, 
easy. 

sogondaay  atapusan  pingoc  toban,  un- 
limited. 

sogondaay  pares,  unequal. 

sogondaay  ig  doma,  unequal. 

sogondaay  gondoc  bo  atalao,  intrepidity. 

sogondaay  sinonan,  unskilfully. 

sogondaay  mitagam,  unskilfully. 

sogondaay  pocongolan,  uninhabited. 

sogondaay  bolong  bo  sopla,  irremedi- 
ably. 

sogondaay  pocpasaylo,  irremissibly. 
moggondaay 

sog   sondalo   moggondaay   abayo,    in- 
fantry. 
sopoggondaay 

sopoggondaay  dason,  illicitly. 
dacsoc  compact,  solid,  massive. 

dacsoc  soc  sogod,  to  stow  cargo. 

V  dinasoc,  solid. 
dagat  sea. 

diuata  dagat,  a  good  spirit  of  the  sea 
but  harmful  if  not  properly  pla- 
cated. 

pusu  dagat,  the  navel  or  center  of  the 
sea. 

baling  dagat,  shore. 

V  dagat,  sea. 
dagel  much. 

madagel  many. 

magdagel  very  much  indeed. 
daghan  to  sell. 
dagom  indigo  plant. 

V  tagom,  id. 
daig  praise. 

pogdaig  to  praise. 

V  dayig,  id. 
dala  to  carry. 

V  dala,  to  bear,  to  carry. 
dala  defection.     Cf.  corala. 

V  pagcaoala,  id. 
dalag  yellow. 

poll  dalag,  the  dawn. 
madalag  (maralag)  yellow. 
dalaga  girl,  unmarried  woman,  maiden. 

V  dalaga,  id. 

dalan  road,  path.     Cf.  daan. 

soc  tondong  nog  dalan,  itinerary. 

V  dalan,  road.    Bontoclgorot:  djdlan,  id. 
dali  quick,  prompt. 

dali  a  manece,  go  thou  up  promptly. 

dali  amo  din  amo  manubua,   come 

quickly  for  the  hunt,  ye  spirits. 

V  dali,  id. 

dalinduman  (d  :  al  :  indum  :  an)  to  re- 
member. 

V  domdom,  id. 

daiomdom  (d  :  al  :  omdom)  memory, 
pogdalomdom  to  imagine. 

V  panondoman,  memory. 
daluan  hen. 

daluan  libuyu,  wild  hen. 
damdam  grass  mat. 
damomog  Cf.  domomog. 
danaan  Cf.  donaan. 


SUBANU-ENGLISH   VOCABUIvARY. 


187 


danao  Cf.  lanao. 
danlag  Cf.  domanlag. 

pocdanlag  nog  balod,  dashing  of  the  sea, 
surf. 
danol  old  ragged  clothes.     Cf.  daan. 
dangal 

dangal  bahal,  a  tree  growing  in  the 
center  of  the  sea  {pusu  dagat). 
dao  to  defraud,  a  thief,  pickpocket. 
mogdao  a  thief. 

mogdao  motoo  tugaling,  a  clever  thief, 
pigdaoan  theft. 
pogdao  to  steal. 
sogmogdadao  a  thief. 

sogmetondong  sogmogdadao,  thievish. 

V  caoat,  to  defraud. 
daoa  a  maize-like  grain. 

V  daoa,  id. 
dapig  faction. 

V  dapig,  ally,  partisan. 

daro  a  plow,  to  plow.       (?  Spanish  arar, 
arado.) 
soc  lupa  noc  tibagol  guinale  ho  semicoat 
nog  daro,  glebe. 

V  daro,  id. 
daromog  Cf.  domomog. 
dason  lawful. 

sopoggondaay  dason,  illicitly. 
sogondaay   dason   malaat   pigondian, 
unlawful. 
date  rich,  renowned. 

V  date,  chief,  rich. 
datong 

pagdatong  arrival,  coming. 
datu  (date)  a  chief. 

datu  tondo,  second  linger. 
dawat  dark  water,  ink. 
dayandayan  to  embellish,  to  adorn. 

V  dayandayan,  an  ornament  of  any  sort. 
debaloy 

polog  sa  golo  debaloy  bo  debaloy,  to  nod 
the  head. 

V  sa  luyo  ug  sa  luyo  (loyo),  to  one  side 

and  the  other. 

deec 

pogdeec  to  climb. 

delengan  a  hearth  or  earthenware  stove 
used  by  the  newly  delivered  mother 
in  order  to  "dry  up  the  womb;"  the 
patient  lies  for  several  days  with 
her  back  to  the  fire  sufficiently  close 
to  scorch  the  skin.  The  same  prac- 
tice has  been  noted  among  the 
Kayan  of  Borneo. 

deliai  any  moment  of  time. 

deni  (dini)  here,  hither.     Cf.  dien. 

V  dinhi,  here. 
deoata  Cf.  diuata. 
depa  a  fathom. 

di  no,  not. 

di  poggolat  sag  bisan  alandon,  to  elimi- 
nate. 

di  a  moglingalinga  soc  simbaan,  be  not 
disorderly  in  church. 

di  maliag  song  naan  nong  mogulang, 
my  parents  do  not  wish  it. 


di — continued. 

di  motahap,  intrepid. 
di  gusay,  never. 
di  maaron,  dissimilar. 
di  somama,  dissimilar. 
ondi  no,  not. 

boclag  ondi  somogot,  defection. 
gondi 

gondi  gangay,  disagreement. 
gondi  maaron,  dissimilar. 
gondi  maglaro,  impassable. 
nogondi 

bal  nogondi  socal  so  catorongan,  injus- 
tice. 
socmicpongon   noc   cabilinan  nogondi 
socalpogbaclogan,  inheritance. 
pigondian 

sogondaay   dason   malaat   pigondian, 
unlawful. 
pingondian  dissent. 
pocondi 

pocondi  maimo  soc  sala,  impeccability. 
pocgondi 

pocgondi  soc  pinongi,  denial, 
sogondi 

sogondi  maglaro,  impassable. 
sogondi  magalin,  imperturbable. 
sogondi  maimo  gantoson,  insupport- 
able. 
sogondi    maimo    guilason    boocon    bo 

suayon,  indivisible. 
sogondi  maimo  noc  sala,  impeccable. 
sogondi  maimo  noc  pasaylon,  unpar- 
donable. 
sogondi   maimo   nong   morala,    inde- 
structible. 
sogondi  maimo  pomagon,  inflexible. 
sogondi  maimo  posocliyan,  immutable. 
sogondi  maimo  uraman,  immutable. 
sogondi  moctoo,  inflexible. 
sogondi  mogbatic,  impassable. 
sogondi  mayac  mogbaal  moglanglaang, 

idler,  vagabond. 
sogondi  motaron,  unlawful. 
sogondi  socalpasaylon,  irremissible. 
sogondi  somoon,  unskilled. 
Bontoc  Igorot:  adt,  no,  not. 
dialum  within,  inside,  under. 

dialum  noc  tubig,  under  the  water. 
Kolon,  Bima:  di,  to,  in,  at. 
dibabau  on,  upon. 

dibabau  palad,  the  back  of  the  hand. 
dibabau  noc  palapa,  the  instep. 
dien  there.     Cf.  deni. 

dien  iposay,  there,  behold! 
dien  ha  baba,  from  the  bottom. 
dig 

manunsuma  dig  nila,  to  eat  wax. 
dila  tongue. 

V  dila,  id.     Bima:  rera,  id.     Bontoc  Igo- 
rot: djtla,  id. 

dilo  no,  not. 

dilo  tnopong,  dissimilar. 

V  dili,  no. 
din  hunt. 

dali  amo   din  amo  manubua,   come 
quickly  for  the  hunt,  ye  spirits. 


188 


THE   SUBANU. 


dinamog 

libong  bo  bacalan  noc  tobon  nog  dina- 
mog bata,  a  barren  female. 
dinampak  a  jar  valued  at  lo  piculs  of  rice. 
dine  to  be. 
dini  Cf.  deni. 

dinoksulan  a  large  fire,  a  conflagration. 
dipag  across. 

pagdipag  soc  stiba  so  guset,  to  cross 
rivers  on  floats. 

V  taboc,  the  other  side,  across  the  sea  or 

river. 
dipuksaya  a  female  spirit  living  midway 
between  heaven  and  earth,  some- 
times materializes  as  the  birds  tibo- 
gok  or  guinagan. 
diselum  early  morning.     Cf.  selem. 
ditaas  Cf.  taas. 
diuata  (deoata,  diwatta)  god. 

mangampon  sog  diuata,  thank  god. 
soc  mitondong  nog  deoata,  idolatrous. 
pocdiuata  to  pray. 

poccadiuata  divinity.  (See  dagat,  Ian- 
git,  matnayiua,  matubud,  niinubu, 
mitubii,  mogolot,  sindupan.) 

V  dios,  the  true  god;  dioata,  a  false  god, 

idol. 
In  the  Philippines,  in  whose  tangle  of 
languages  the  word  is  of  wide  and  general 
distribution,  it  has  been  suggested  that 
diuata  derives  from  Sanskrit  deva.  Not 
only  have  we  to  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that 
eastward  migration  is  contrary  to  the  great 
westward  sweep  of  the  Aryan  folk,  but 
also  that  in  Indonesia  we  can  trace  the 
comparatively  modern  Indian  influence 
(circa  300  B.C.)  only  as  far  as  Java.  It 
seems  simpler  to  derive  diuata  from  Chris- 
tian effort  through  the  Spanish  dios.  The 
source  remaining  the  same,  it  is  far  easier 
for  the  Aryan  folk  to  carry  the  word  from 
dyaus  to  Zeus  and  deus  and  by  means  of 
dios  in  the  westward  sweep  of  the  world 
than  to  struggle  against  the  current  these 
few  eastward  miles.  The  distinction  made 
by  the  Visayan  is  wholly  artificial,  and  a 
tenuous  divarication. 

doctoc  to  buffet. 

dogo  blood. 

sogdogo  flux,  hemorrhage. 

V  dogo,  blood. 
doguian 

gayo  nog  doguian,  acacia. 
dolan  a  cloud. 

pogdolan  to  overcloud. 

pogdolan  nog  bunua,  to  obscure  the 
land,  to  overshadow. 
doma  equal. 

sogondaay  ig  doma,  unequal. 
domanlag 

socdomanlag,  one  who  makes  impor- 
tunate demands. 
domangop  (d  :  om  :  angop)  to  receive,  to 
grant  asylum. 

V  dangop,  id. 


domomog  (damomog,  daromog)  the  lips. 
songag  domomog  nogombagol  bo  marei- 

pol,  thick  lips. 
sogmebagolan     nog    damomog,    thick 
lipped. 
donaan  (danaan)  palate,  throat. 

V  toton,  totonlan,  id. 
donaoan  puddle.     Cf.  lanao. 
donding  a  mud  or  brick  wall. 
donini 

paca  momis  donini,  how  sweet  this  is. 
don  lag  the  day  after  to-morrow. 

V  damlag,  id. 
donot  to  follow. 

pogdonot  sog  poctoon  nog  balos  soc  poc- 
cano,  to  be  heathen. 

V  nonot,   to  follow  one  physically  or 

morally. 
donggoan  anchorage. 

donggoan  tugbungan,  port,  anchoring 
ground. 

V  donggo,  to  anchor;  donggoanan,  an- 

chorage. 
dongog  reputation.     Cf.  rongog. 

sogmalaat   bo   mogangay  nog  dongog, 
defamer. 

V  dongog,  to  hear,  fame,  reputation. 
doon  leaf. 

doon    gahon    socpoctibooc    no    gatas, 
galium. 

V  dahon,  leaf. 
doon  to  have,  to  be. 

V  dona,  id. 

dope  (dupe)  rain,  shower,  to  rain. 

dope  nog  guinanat,  fine  rain,  mist. 
tubig  nog  dope,  rainwater. 
pogdope  shower,  rain. 

toon  no  pogdope  viarope,  rainy, 
pocodope  shower,  rain. 
doque  to  thrust. 

V  sontoc,  to  thrust  with  a  pointed  weapon. 
doro  to  suckle. 

pagdoro  nonga  gombata,  lactation. 
sogmogdoro  suckling. 
doso  to  impel. 

V  doso,  to  stir,  to  push. 
dosop  Cf.  sop. 

dua  two. 

dua  liu,  the  seventh  eighth  of  the 
moon. 
duapulu  twenty. 

V  doha,  two.     Bontoc  Igorot:  djua,  id. 
dubdub  breast.     Cf.  gogdob,  gedeb. 

dubdub  libun,  breast  of  a  woman. 
dugnayan 

dugnayan  ig  lanas  no  gotao  mapiai' 
guindog,  gallantry,  elegance. 
dula  saliva. 

pocdula  to  spit. 

V  loa,  saliva,  phlegm. 
dulud  knee. 
dulungan  hen. 
dunukun  a  cloth  sieve. 
dungus  mountain. 

gedungusan  (ge  :  dungus  :  an)  moun- 
tain chain,  range. 
dupe  Cf.  dope. 


SUBANU-ENGLISH   VOCABUI^ARY. 


189 


bosi  doon  ec  somagan,  a  lance. 
nano  ec  pogulimo,  when  wilt  thou  go? 
sapauan  ec  potao  somala  alandon,  to  gar- 
nish with  iron  points. 
bonua  nocolonan  nocpoc  tobora  ec  bo  poc- 

ttian  noc  tubig,  a  spring. 
poctald  nogompia  pinili  ec  talonong  molomo 
noc  paglangay,  fluent. 
ecsipan  nipple. 
edob  Cf.  gogdob,  gedeb. 
embais  (bais)  beautiful. 
empetek  short. 

tapis  empetek,  a  short  skirt,  kilt. 

gaan  to  eat,  a  meal,  food  of  any  sort.  Cf. 
cana,  menaticaan,  quinaan. 

pagandam  nog  gaan,  supplies,  provi- 
sions. 

gaan  noc  potocon  boogon  noc  tonob  so- 
mala alandon  nong  mobogbog,  cakes. 

V  caon,  to  eat. 

gabang  to  assist,  to  defend,  to  help, 
sogicabang  defense. 
sogicagabang  defensive. 
mangangabang  lawyer. 

V  tabang,  to  help,  assist. 
gabasan  to  cut. 

gabe  a  tuber,  edible  when  cooked;  the  taro 
{Colocasia  antiquorum,  Schott). 

V  gabi,  a  comestible  root  cultivated  in 

gardens. 
gabiganen  smallness. 
gabilunen  Cf.  bilu. 
gabit  to  speak. 

pigagabit  talk. 
gabo  ashes 

gabo  pagbaloganan,  fireplace,  hearth. 

V  abo,  fireplace.     Bontoc  Igorot:  tjapo, 

ashes. 
gabo  event. 

gabo  name,  our  event. 
soc  tondong  gabo  nog  mogonao,  per- 
taining to  winter. 
gabu  gray  color  in  the  sky. 
gabuludan  Cf.  bulud. 
gaclop  poultice. 

V  haclop,  id. 
gaco  to  me. 

bugayan  gaco  noc  tubig,  give  me  water. 
ganpo  7no  gaco,  pray  thou  for  me. 

V  aco,  I. 
gacsop 

pocoocsop  gacsop,  imbibition. 
gagao  to  snatch. 

V  pagagao,  id. 
gagda  to  impel. 

V  agda,  to  exhort,  to  inspirit. 
gagen  (gegen)  windpipe,  thorax. 
gagimut  root  of  a  grass  used  as  a  medicine 

in  childbirth;  it  is  boiled  and  the 
decoction  given  to  the  patient  just 
after  delivery. 
gagoy  soot. 

sogmigagoyan  sooty. 
gagun  gong.     (Malay  gong.) 

gagun  sinam  belilu,  sounds  of  the  gong 
which  sununon  the  midwife. 


gahon 

pomolanon  doon  gahon  socpoctibooc  no 
galas,  galium. 
gaitan  to  open  a  trail,  path. 

V  gahit,  gahad,  pathway  about  a  plan- 

tation. 
gakpis  young. 

gakpis  malapati,  a  young  tame  pigeon. 
gal  abac  carabao  (Tagalog),  water  buffalo. 
galad  fence. 

galad  nog  llayan  tanas  socpogboloy  noc 
sura  soc  tubigan,  a  cane  enclosure 
for  catching  fish. 

V  alad,  a  fence,  corral.     Bontoc  Igorot: 

dlad,  id. 
galiyan  a  small  canoe. 
galonaonen  Cf.  lonao. 
galuas  a  jar  valued  at  i  j  piculs  of  rice. 
galubalu  thumb. 

galubalu  gocsud,  great  toe. 
galunawan  a  jar  valued  at  6  piculs  of  rice. 
gama  father. 

gama  nog  gapo,  great  grandfather. 

V  amahan,  father.  Bontoc  Igorot :  dma,  id. 
garni  we  (exclusive). 

gamo  (amo)  you. 

guindog  gamo,  stand  ye  up. 

V  camo,  you. 
gampo  to  pray. 

gampo  mo  gaco,  pray  thou  for  me. 
mangampon 

mangampon  sog  diuata,  give  thanks  to 
god. 

V  ampo,  to  pray. 

gampu  village.     (Malay  kampong.) 

gampu    nog    balay,    hamlet,    village, 

settlement  of  4  or  5  houses. 
gampu  nog  bawang,  id. 
gandang  drum. 
ganit  skin  (when  removed  from  the  animal). 

Cf.  panit. 
gansur  khaki  color;  kagansunen. 
gantang  a  basket  holding  2  quarts.     (Ma- 
lay.) 
gantnng  pamukuan,  a  basket  measure 

of  rice. 
gantang  buhisan,  id. 
gantingganting  earring. 
gantiu  slack  trousers  in  Chinese  fashion. 
gantoson  to  endure.     Cf.  antosan. 

sogondi  tnaimo  gantoson,  insupport- 
able. 

V  antos,  antosan,  to  bear,  to  suffer. 
gangas  forehead,  brow. 

gangay  to  accede,  to  agree.     Cf.  angay. 
gondi  gangay,  disagreement. 
gangay  noc  sabot,  to  accede,  to  agree. 
lompoc  gongaya,  to  unite. 
pogangay  to  facilitate. 

V  angay,  fit,  just,  right,  agreeable. 
gangay 

gangay  soc  patal,  to  put  balls  on  bulls' 

horns. 
poc gangay  noc  capintas  abolo  socog,  to 

enervate,  debilitate. 

V  pagpahangay,  to  put  balls  on. 
gangol  wound,  ulcer,  sore. 

pogangol  to  wound. 


190 


THB   SUBANU. 


gaom  mind,  knowledge,  power. 

gaom  socpogbaal,  cleverness,  efficiency. 

gaom  noc  motondong  sogonauna,  science 
of  ideas. 

sogdoon  ig  gaom  nog  poglioat,  genera- 
tive. 

pocogondaay  gaom,  ignorance. 

gondaay  gaom,  idiocy. 

gotao  gondaay  gaom,  idiot. 
gaoman  power. 

V  gahoin,  power,  strength. 
gapal  ship. 

gapal  layag,  sailing  vessel. 

gapal  gapoy,  steamship. 
gapetnen  Cf.  pet. 
gapid  twins. 

Bontoc  Igorot :  apik,'\A. 
gapo  a  parent's  parent. 

gapo  nog  lee,  grandfather. 

gaps  nog  libon,  grandmother. 

gama  nog  gapo,  great-grandfather. 

V  apohan,    grandfather,    grandmother. 

Kolon:  om/)M,  grandfather.     Bima: 
dmpu,  id. 
gapog  lime. 

poglomi  no  gapog  somala  alandon,  to 
whitewash. 

V  apog,  lime.     Kolon:  kdpu,  lime,  chalk. 

Bima:  afu,  id. 
gapoy  fire. 

baga  tondong  noc  abolo  no  gapoy,  igni- 
tion, burning. 
sogmogota  nog  gapoy,  vomiting  fire. 
Bontoc  Igorot:  apuy,  fire, 
gapud  a  stick. 
gapulonen  Cf.  pulo. 
gare  a  chief. 

pogogovitan  somala  nog  gare  so  gomba- 
gol  noc  lonsod,  idiom,  language. 
poggare  to  command. 

V  hadi,  hari,  king,  to  rule.     Bontoc  Igo- 

rot: dli,  king.     Ilocano:  art,  id. 
gasa  weak. 

magasa  to  become  weak. 

V  gasa,  weak,  thin. 
gasa  a  cigarette. 

gasa  saguing,   a  cigarette  rolled   in 
banana  leaf. 
gasalagnen  Cf.  salag. 
gasi  fermented  rice  beer. 

minoma  sog  gasi,  to  drink  rice  beer, 
pangasi  rice  beer. 
gasintos  collar. 

V  asintos,  id. 

gasol  blue.     (Spanish  azul.) 
gasoy  to  define. 

V  asoy,  to  explain,  to  define. 
gatad  to  emanate.     Cf.  pegotaran. 

poggatad  poctolin  nog  bangot,  to  get  a 
beard. 
sogmegatad  initiative. 
gatai  the  liver. 

V  atay,  id.     Bontoc  Igorot:  dtoy,  id. 
gataluknen  Cf.  taluk, 

gatas  milk. 

tondong  no  gatas,  milky. 
pomolanon  doon  gahon  socpoctibooc  no 
gatas,  galium. 


gatas — continued. 

V  gatas,  id. 

gatbang  to  face.     Cf.  tobang. 

V  pagatobang,  id. 
gatop  (atop)  roof. 

poctolo  nongogatop,  to  rain. 

V  atop,  roof  of  leaves,  thatch.     Bontoc 

Igorot:  dtep,  id. 
gaui  custom,  habit. 

V  gaoi,  custom,  habit,  quality. 
gauid  to  govern. 

magagauid  governor. 
gaus  wealth. 

magaus  wealthy,  rich. 
gawal  jacket. 

gawas  tight  trousers  in  Sulu  fashion, 
gaya  maternal  imcle. 
gayac  Cf.  ayac. 
gayam  dog. 
gayo  tree,  wood,  timber. 

gayo  nong  motaas,  beam,  a  large  balk 

of  timber. 
gayo  nog  doguian,  acacia. 
aloonan  nog  gayoonan,  raft,  wooden 
float. 

V  cahoy,  tree.  Bontoc  Igorot:  kdyao,  id. 
gedeb  chest.  Cf.  edob,  gogdob,  dubdub. 
geding  (kuting)  cat. 

gedungusan  Cf.  dungus. 
geeg  t^oat. 

Bontoc  Igorot:  alogoog,  id. 
geg  knife,  general  term. 
gegbad 

gegbad  soong,  interior  of  the'nose. 
gegen  Cf.  gagen. 
gektu 

gektu  bata  bulan,  second  eighth'ofjthe 
moon. 

gektu  gulang  bulan,  fifth  eighth'of  the 
moon. 

gektu  gondao,  noonday. 
geleg  tiiroat. 
gelektu 

gelektu  langit  bulan,  good  spirits  which 
bring  the  moon  back^and^keep  its 
face  clear. 
gelet  following. 
gelu  pestle. 
gemai  boiled  rice. 
gemet  finger.     Cf.  goyamet. 
gemisnen  Cf.  mis. 
gen  bet  a  thick  coarse  cloth  used  as  armor. 

Cf.  kinopatan. 
genenkan  to  run. 
genit 

genit  bitun,  shooting  star,  meteor. 
geniya  this. 
genlit  a  small  jar. 
getomnen  Cf.  torn, 
geyen  he,  she. 

gibas  areca  nut  slicedlfor  betel  chewing, 
gibasgibas  a  mouse. 
gibusibus  breastbone. 
giget  bowstring. 
gigus  house  cat. 
giham  mat  (screwpine  leaves). 
gikud  (gigud)  tail. 
gilay  eyebrow. 


SUBANU-ENGLISH   VOCABULARY. 


191 


gilek  armpit.     Cf.  guilid. 
gilugu  sister,  brother. 
gimukud  Cf.  guimud. 
gina  (ina,  guina)  mother,  aunt. 

V  inahan,  mother. 
gineng  half. 

gineng  gohii,  midnight. 
ginenga  half. 

ginenga  minek  gondao,  afternoon. 
gini  this. 
ginit  (init)  heat. 
ginotau  pupil  of  the  eye. 
ginubungan  womb. 
ginulai  firewood. 
gipianan  Cf.  pia. 
gita  (ita)  we  (inclusive). 
gitit  a  young  chicken. 
giyud  a  small  fish-net  for  one  or  two  men. 
goangai 

goangai  gocsod,  small  toe. 
gobal  smoke. 

bengawan  nog  gobal,  a  place  where 
smoke  may  escape  from  a  house, 
chimney. 
pocagobal  much  smoke. 
sogmogombal  smoky. 
gobe  sweet  potato. 

gobe  mananap,  sweet  potato. 

V  gabi,  an  edible  root  much  cultivated. 
gobednarol   governor.      (Spanish   gober- 

nador.) 
gobii   night;  calendar  day,   since  time  is 
usually  reckoned  by  nights. 
gondao  bo  gobii,  a  day  and  a  night,  one 

calendar  day. 
gineng  gobii,  midnight. 
polupungobii  evening. 

V  gabii,  night. 
goboc  to  run. 

gobol  gray.     Cf.  gobal. 
mogobol  gray  hair. 
kagobolnen  (ka  :  gobol  :  nen)  a  gray- 
haired  person. 
gobonong 

apote  doon  ig  bongcon  noc  ponopoton 
nong  moreipol  gobonong  mogonao, 
greatcoat. 
gobot  factious,  disorderly. 

V  gobot,  to  disorder,  to  entangle, 
gocabgocab  to  fan. 

goclac  blaze,  firelight. 
gocsip  a  small  wedge. 

V  sipsip,  id. 

gocsud  the  foot.     Cf.  pocsod. 

galubalu  gocsud,  great  toe. 

goangai  gocsud,  little  toe. 

goyamet  gocsud,  a  toe. 
godaay  (gondaay)  Cf.  daay. 
godlod  to  hide. 
gogba 

gogba  nog  lupa,  to  survey  boundaries. 
gogbag  to  disjoin,  to  partition. 
gogdan  notched  log  used  as  steps  to  a  house, 

ladder. 
gogdob  (edob)  chest,  breast. 

gogdob  lee,  breast  of  a  man. 
goglon  deglutition,  swallowing. 


goguis  white. 

V  ogis,  id. 

goit  (quit)  to  carry. 

pocogoit  carriage,  transport. 
sogmogoit  carrier,  conductor. 

sogmogoit     nog     bandela,     standard 
bearer. 
socnaquit  carried. 

socsinipit   socnaquit,   carried   in  the 
arms. 
naquit 

sogmocsogao  nong  Tiaquit,  weeper, 
gola 

gola  maimo,  to  be  able  to  contain, 
golang 

golang  guisip  nogondaapa  mobiaray, 
unliquidated. 
golas  sweat. 
golat 

di  poggolat  sog  bisan  alandon,  to  elimi- 
nate. 
goles  sand. 

V  balas,  id. 

golitao  (go  :  li  :  tao)  bachelor,  unmarried 
man. 

V  olitaoo,  bachelor,  less  properly  widower, 
golo  head. 

golo  nogombagol,  lintel. 
polog  sa  golo  debaloy  bo  debaloy,  nod 
of  the  head. 
goloan  pillow. 

V  olo,  head,  top.     Bontoc  Igorot:  olo, 

head;  o/aoan,  pillow. 
gomalin  to  admit  to  the  house. 
gombagol  Cf.  bagol. 
gombata  (go  :  mbata)  children. 
gomog  (gomoc,  gomot)  hand. 

soc  pongol  so  gomoc,  leprous  (when  the 
hand  is  mutilated). 

V  camot,  hand.     Kayan:  kama,  id. 
gomolang  Cf.  gulang. 

gomot  hatred,  displeasure,  to  detest. 
socalpoglogomutan,  abominable. 

V  domot,  hate. 
gompia  Cf.  pia. 
gompoti  Cf.  poti. 
gompulo  Cf.  pulo. 
gonagona  idea,  thought. 

so  gonagona,  ideally. 

pogonagona,  to  conceive  an  idea,  to 
think. 

pagonagona  somala  alandon,  to  judge. 

tontol  nocpigonagona  moc  nga  gotao, 
fable. 

poclabon  sacquionaona,  to  dissemble. 

gumauna,  to  remember. 

pocolaen  sa  gunagona  coendoc,  amaze- 
ment. 

gunaguna,  imagination. 

sogmogunaguna,  imaginative. 

sogsocalgunagunaon,  imaginable. 

gonaguna,  thought. 

gaom  noc  motondong  so  gonaguna, 
science  of  ideas. 

pagonaguna,  imagine. 

V  honahona,  thought,  reasoning  power. 


192 


THE   SUBANU. 


gonas  low  tide. 

poglogonas  rising  tide. 

V  honas,  low  tide. 
gonda  gland. 
gondaay  Cf.  daay. 
gondao  Cf.  ondao, 
gondemaqui 

gondemaqui  nongog,  enchanted, 
gondi  Cf.  di. 
gondoc  Cf.  ondoc. 
gonlo  enchanter,  wizard. 

V  onglo,  wizard,  witch. 
gonom  six. 

gonompulu  sixty. 

V  onom,  six.     Bontoc  Igorot :  inim,  enim, 

.  id. 
gonopo  cousin. 
gonos  (gounos)  blow  as  wind. 

gonos  nong  marisa,  bad  weather,  gale, 
tempest,  storm. 

V  ones,  gale. 
gonto  to  hiccup. 

V  pagonto,  id. 
gonu 

poctoho  soc  gonu  soc  mga  lee,  to  have  a 
beard  just  growing. 
gongaya  to  unite. 
gongean  deficit. 
gongog  fool,  enchanted. 

gongog  culang  nog  huot,  silly. 
inongogongog,  foolish  in  act  or  speech. 

V  hongog,  fool. 
gooay  rattan. 

V  ooay,  id.     Bontoc  Igorot:  wile,  id. 
good  near. 

pogood,  accessible. 

V  dool,  to  draw  near. 
goot  Cf.  goit. 

pogoot  to  carry  in  a  cart. 

V  hacot,  id. 
gopa  bagasse. 

V  opa,  id. 
gopao  to  grow  bald. 

V  opao,  bald. 
gopia  Cf.  pia. 

gopia  very,  a  superlative. 

motaas  gopia,  elevated. 

menaticaan   no   came   inoctod  gopia, 

minced  meat. 
hata  noc  poraigon  gopia,  spoiled  child. 
gotao  noc  socogan  gopia,  a  person  of 
great  strength. 
goroc  to  sow  seed. 

lopa  mogondaapa  balay  gorocan,  un- 
cultivated. 
gosaca  very. 

amaaron  gosaca,  identically. 
gosay  order. 

sogindagosay  imperturbable. 
paggosay  to  judge. 
pagusay  counting. 

V  hosay,  to  set  in  order,  to  solve  riddles. 
gosig  to  bark. 

sopoggosig  no  quito,  barking. 
socmoggosig  maloong,  barker. 
pogosig    no    quito    noc    pogboutolon, 
howling  of  a  dog. 

V  osig,  to  bark. 


gosind  a  temporary  house  used  in  childbirth. 
gosod  to  obey. 

socsomocol  so  nga  gosod,  dissenter. 

V  sogot,  to  obey. 
gosog  chief. 

gosog  sog  binocot,  abbess. 
gosog  nog  lonoon,  a  chief. 
gosog  nog  balay,  head  of  the  house- 
hold. 
gosomnen  Cf.  som. 
gotao  (gutao)  (go  :  tao)  person,  man. 

buat  so  poglibon  no  gotao,  lues  venerea. 
pocboclag  soc  gotao  nga  soay,  divorce. 
picponnongan  nonga  gotao,  a  crowd. 
mitondong  no  gotao,  human. 
poglogotaoan 

poglogotaoan    pisala     noc    paroquia, 
parishioner. 
gounos  Cf.  gonos. 
govitan 

pogogovitan 

pogogovitan  somala  nog  gare  so  gomba- 
gol  noc  lonsod,  language. 
pogovitan 

pogovitan    nog    latin,    identical,    the 
same. 
goyamet  finger.     Cf.  gemet. 
goyamet  gocsod,  a  toe. 
Bontoc  Igorot:  komaot,  id. 
goyan  to  accede,  to  agree,  to  pay  deference. 
pegoyonan  (pe  :  goyon  :  an)  accord, 
resolution. 

V  oyon,  id. 
gua  outward. 

sa  gua,  outwardly,  externally. 

V  goa,  far;  sa  goa,  externally. 

guak  (quak)  the  crow.     Cf.  gwakgwak. 
gubat  war. 

V  gobat,  to  make  war. 
guda  horse. 

gugat  vein,  artery,  blood  vessel. 

Bontoc  Igorot:  uad,  vein,  artery. 
guging  rump. 
gui-  verb-formative  prefix. 

V  gi,  gui,  a  particle  which  forms  passive 

verbs  in  the  present  or  preterit. 
guiadman  Cf.  doma. 

casoon  guiadman,  abiUty. 
gui  bid  iguana. 

V  ibid,  id. 
guibog  appetite. 

guibogan  Tguibog  :  an)  dainties. 

V  ibog,  id. 

guicoran  (gui :  cod  :  an)  chair.    Cf.  guing- 
cod. 

V  lingcodan,  bench,  chair. 
guien  he,  she. 

mipanas  guien,  he  has  fever. 
tatiago  mo  guien,  call  thou  him. 
posoloron  mo  guien,  tell  him  to  come 
in. 

V  guini,  he,  she. 
guilan  they. 

posobaton    mo    guilan,    make    them 

answer. 
lompoc  nga  gotao  nog  minalsa  guilan 

somocol  noc  ponuan,  faction. 

V  sila,  nila,  ila,  they. 


SUBANU-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY. 


Ids 


guilas  share. 

pocguilas  to  distribute. 

sogondi  maimo  guilason,  indivisible. 
guilat  to  lighten. 

V  quilat,  lightning. 
guilid  flank,  side. 

pocolog  nog  guilid  sopogloguinaod  boc- 
tasan,  to  palpitate,  to  pant. 

V  quilid,  id. 
guiling  to  imitate. 

sopoconongguiling,  imitation, 
sogmonongguiling  imitator. 
pocponongguiling 

pocponongguiling  noc  pomotangon  nog 
megleenleen  pocomotood,  to  identify. 
socsocalpononggulingan,  imitable. 
guilos  cat. 

mananap  momaaron  no  quilos,  civet. 

V  iring,  iding,  id. 
guimood 

laroon   nog   guimood,   ulcer,    wound, 
sore. 
guimud  (gimukud)  that  soul  which  lives 
under  the  crown  of  the  head  and 
never  dies. 
guinagan  a  bird  in  which  the  female  spirit 
dipuksaya  sometimes  materializes. 
guinago 

pocponong  somala  alandon  guinago,  to 
form,  to  fashion. 
guinale 

sac  lupa  noctibogol  guinale,  glebe. 
guinanat 

dope  nog  guinanat,  fine  rain,  mist. 
guinaoa 

a.  the  breath. 

b.  that  soul  which  lives  in  the  breath  and 

dies  with  the  body. 
pocolog  nog  guilid  sopogloguinaod  boc- 
tasan,  to  pant,  palpitate. 

V  guinhaoa,  breath. 
guindog  to  stand. 

guindog  gamo,  stand  ye  up. 
poguindog  to  step  on. 

V  tindog,  to  stand,  to  be  erect. 
guinocsip  adzing. 

V  sinapsap,  chips,  splinters;  sapsap,  to 

work   wood   with   adzes.     Bontoc 
Igorot:  sapsap,  shavings,  chips. 

guinogdoban  hysterical. 

guinolal 

sog  tinangonan  noc  sa  lamin  guinolal 
antocos,  spectacles. 

guinom  to  drink.    Cf.  gunimom,  poinom. 

V  inom,  id. 

guinonsola   to   repent.     Cf.    inunsulan, 
basulan. 
guinonsola  soc  posong,  repent  with  all 
your  heart. 

V  hinolsol,  id. 
guingcod  to  be  seated,  to  sit. 

poguingcora  sit  you  down. 

V  lingcod,  id. 
guionaona  Cf.  gonagona. 
guipos  (ipos)  to  look. 
guiscuelaan  (g  :  escuela  :  an)  school. 

(Spanish  escuela.) 
guiscuelaan  noc  poctoonan,  school. 


guisip  to  count. 

golang  guisip  nogondaapa  tnohiaray, 
unliquidated. 
paguisip  counting. 

V  isip,  to  reckon,  to  number. 
guisoc 

megolos  guisoc,  to  fly  into  a  rage. 
guison  to  put  into. 

pocbtitang  guison,  to  put  into  a  basket. 
guison  bisan  alandon  sog  bobaan,  to 

put  into  a  basket. 
pogguison   soc    bariles,    to    put    into 
barrels. 
guit  Cf.  goit. 
guito  (ito)  dog. 

bata  ito,  puppy. 

pagosig  no  guito  nocpogboutolon,  howl- 
ing of  a  dog. 
sopoggosig  no  guito,  barking. 

V  ido,  dog. 

gulai  chief  of  the  diuata  langit. 
gulang  (golang)  old. 

gektu  gulang  bulan,  the  fifth  eighth  of 

the  moon. 
minsan  liu  gulang  bulan,  the  sixth 
eighth. 
magulang  old,  aged. 
mogulang  parent,  elder. 
gomolang  (g  :  om  :  clang). 

gotao  no  gomolang,  old  man. 
gomolanggolang,  of  ripe  age  and  under- 
standing, mature. 

V  golang,  elder  brother,  any  person  past 

middle  age. 
gulen  a  large  jar. 
gulingan  Cf.  guiling. 
gulipun  (ulipun)  slave. 
gulu  teacher. 
gululu  an  herb  medicine  administered  in 

childbirth. 
gulungan  cage. 

Bontoc   Igorot:   kolong,   cage,   chicken 
basket. 
gumanoc  egg. 

sumada  na  gumanoc,  to  eat  the  egg. 
gumang  hermit  crab. 
gumauna  Cf.  gonagona. 
gumi  hair  on  lip  and  chin,  beard. 
gum  pan  bait. 
gumut  a  heavy  article  of  clothing  like  a 

blanket. 
gunagona  Cf.  gonagona. 
gunaguna  Cf.  gonagona. 
gunimon  drink.     Cf.  guinom,  poinom. 
gunsulaki  a  jar  valued  at  325  piculs  of  rice. 
gunsulee  a  jar  valued  at  150  piculs  of  rice. 
gunud  meat. 

gunud  galabau,  beef. 

gunud  baboy,  pork. 
guroc  to  plant. 
gusa  Cf.  osa. 
gusay  always. 

di  gusay,  never. 
guset  a  raft. 

pagdipag  sac  suba  soguset,  to  cross 
rivers  on  floats. 
gusuk  a  rib. 
gutao  Cf.  gotao. 


194 


THE   SUBANU. 


gutek  the  thinking  power,  thought,  reason, 

brain. 
Bontoc  Igorot:  utek,  brain. 
gutung  (utung)  monkey. 
guyo  to  urinate. 
gwakgwak  flying  spirits  of  evil  (manamat) 

human  in  size,  feed  on  men.     Cf. 

guak. 
gwasay  a  grubbing  mattock;  blade  13  inches 

long,  5  inches  wide  at  the  cutting 

edge  and  tapering  back  to  about 

an  inch,  helve  very  similar  to  the 

American  axe;  axe. 
Bontoc  Igorot:  wasay,  axe,  adze. 

hatud  Cf.  atud, 

hilamon  a  digging  knife,  smaller  than  the 

pes. 
huopongon 

songa  gotao  aron  huopongon,  to  form. 

ica 

V  ica,   ig,   a  particle  of  future  passive 

verbs. 
icagabang  Cf.  gabang. 
ictubig  Cf.  tubig. 
ig 

ming  conotconot  da  ig  viste,  to  purse  up 

the  gown. 
iga  thou. 

igbongcon  Cf.  bongcon. 
igbutasan  Cf.  batasan. 
igdoma  Cf.  doma. 
iggaom  Cf.  gaom. 
iglanas  Cf.  lanas. 
igiua  Cf.  lua. 
iguen  to  impel. 
iin  he,  she. 
ilan  they. 
ilig 

sogpacailig  leaning,  inclination  to  one 

side. 
ilu 

hata  ilu  neg  libon,  orphan  girl. 
impit  exactly. 

V  hingpit,  exactly,  perfectly. 
imud 

imud  soong,  septum  of  the  nose. 
ina  (gina)  mother,  aunt. 

Bontoc  Igorot:  Ina,  mother. 
inangkag  dried. 

inangkag  seda,  dried  fish. 
inda  no,  not. 

soginda  gosay,  imperturbable. 
indamanta  let  us  try. 
init  (ginit)  to  heat. 
minit  heat,  warm. 
panas  minit,  to  be  feverish. 
minit  togaling,  very  warm,  hot. 
pacpinit  to  warm. 

V  init,  mainit,  minit,  id. 
Inobangan  to  defend.     Cf .  gabang. 
inoctod 

menaticaan   no  came  inoctod  gopia, 
minced  meat. 
inog  ripe,  mature. 

sogonda  inog,  unseasonable. 


inog — continued. 

pacainog  ripeness,  maturity. 
picnogan 

bonua  nocpoc  picnogan  nog  bonga,  a 
place  for  ripening. 
sogmecpeinog  that  which  ripens. 

V  hinog,  ripe. 

(inom)  poinom  to  drink.     Cf.  guinom, 
minoma. 
pocpoinom  nong  niilo,  to  give  poison. 

V  inom,  todrink.  Bontoc  Igorot:  inumek, 
?nalnum,  mangtnnm,  id. 

inongogongog  Cf.  gongog. 

inu  spinning  room. 

inunsulan   (guinonsola)  to  repent.     Cf. 

basulan. 
ipos  (guipos)  to  look. 

mita  ipos,  to  see  at  a  distance. 

dien  iposay,  there,  behold. 
isa  one. 

ita  (gita)  we  (inclusive). 
ito  Cf.  guito. 


jabas 


baling  somala  alandon  jabas  matas  bo 
moloclin,  bandage. 


ka-  prefixed    to   cardinal   numerals   forms 

ordinals. 
Malay:  ka,  id. 
kagobolnen  Cf.  gobol. 
kaingin  forest  land  cleared  and  burned  over 

for  plantations. 
Mindoro:  caingy,  id. 
kakud  a  jar  valued  at  12I  piculs  of  rice, 
kalamonte  the  golden  scepter  used  by  the 

guardian  spirits  of  property. 
kalau  the  hornbill.  _ 

kaliguan  a  jar  valued  at  12^  piculs  of  rice. 
kanuku  finger  nail. 

Bontoc  Igorot:  koko,  nail. 
kinopatan  cloth.     Cf.    genbet,   ponopo- 

ton. 
kisanggulang  the  fighting  knife  of  a  giant. 
kogon  a  grass  of  rapid  growth,  6-8  feet  high. 
koingai  little  finger. 
kulagu  hair  of  the  body. 
kulambu  mosquito  bar.     (Sulu.) 
kulis  the  lines  of  the  palm. 
kulintangan  a  musical  instrument  of  nine 

small  gongs  on  a  wooden  frame. 
kumpau  a  fathom. 

kumpau  matagas,  a  measure  of  value 

of  gongs,  jars,  brasses  and  durable 

goods,  twice  the  value  of  malinut. 
kumpau  malinut,  a  measure  of  value 

of  cloth  and  perishable  goods. 
kundungan  a  jar  valued  at  7^  piculs  of  rice. 
kutapi  a  musical  instrument  resembling  a 

guitar  with  hemp  strings. 
kuting  (geding)  cat.     (Sulu.) 

laang  to  walk. 

moglanglaang 

sogondi  mayac  mogbaal  moglanglaang, 
idler,  vagabond. 
V  lacat,  to  walk. 


SUBANU-ENGLISH   VOCABULARY. 


195 


^aat  bad. 

calaatan  (ca  :  laat  :  an)  wrong. 

calaatan  nogombagol,  injustice. 
malaat  bad,  ugly,  iniquitous. 

malaat  nog  boot,  hatred,  displeastire. 

malaat  nog  palag,  misfortune. 

malaat  no  abotang,  ill  at  ease. 

malaat  tugaling,  evil-doer,  corrupt. 
nogmalaat  fallacy. 
moglaat  prejudicial. 
poalat  wickedness. 
poglaat  to  damage. 

nog  metagam  nog  ^og/aa<,mischievous- 
ness. 

sogmaglaat  nog  dongog,  slanderer. 

sogpacalaat  tugaling,  iniquitously. 

V  daot,  bad. 

labanan  to  aid,  to  assist,  to  help. 

V  laban,   to   intercede  for  another,   to 

acquit  of  blame. 
labian 

mga  gotao  socalpalalabian,  rabble. 
palalabe  to  abuse. 

V  labi,  superior,  more  than,  pride. 
labo 

pocolabo  to  fall. 
labon  to  cover. 

poclabon  to  garnish  with  iron  points. 

poclabon  sac  guionaona,  to  dissemble. 

poclabon  sa  capote,  to  cloak. 

V  labon,  to  cover  over. 
labong  yesterday. 

labong  ec  labong,  day  before  yesterday. 
labuyu  Cf.  libuyu. 
ladawan  image,  picture. 
laen  different. 

pocolaen  sa  gunagona,  amazement. 

V  Iain,  distinct,  different. 
laga  price. 

pacponoog  sog  laga,  to  cheapen. 
pacpalaga  somala  alandon,  to  estimate. 
Bontoc  Igorot :  Idgo,  price  (from  the  pur- 
chaser's point  of  view). 
laget  a  chewing  mixture  of  tobacco,  areca 
nut  and  betel  leaf. 
batangan  laget,  tobacco  box. 
lagi  husband,  male.     Cf.  lee. 

bata  lagi,  a  small  male  child. 
sapi  lagi,  ox. 

V  lalaqui,  male,  man.    Kayan:  laki,  el- 

derly man.  Tagalog :  lalaqui,  male. 
Bontoc  Igorot:  laldki,  id.  Malay: 
lakilaki,  man.  Java:  laki,  man. 
Macassar:  laki,  manly ;  kalaki,  man. 
lagos 

malagos     lean,     thin.       (malangas, 
Christie.) 
naa  malagos  tugaling,  yes,  he  is  worse. 
lagoy  to  scatter. 

poclagoy  dispersion. 

V  pagcalaguio,  dispersion. 
laguas  petticoat.     (Spanish  enaguas.) 
lainpai  small  plate,  saucer. 
lagagunum  a  war  chief  of  several  settle- 
ments. 

lakas  a  cigarette. 

lakas  mais,  cigarette  wrapped  in  corn 
(maize)  husk. 


laknit  a  small  bat. 
lalabong  afternoon.     Cf.  bong, 
lalag  Cf.  dalag. 
lalas  hot. 

malalas  hot,  peppery,  pungent. 
lalis  to  wrangle,  to  fight,  to  be  obstinate. 
malali  yamo  mocsasa,  be  you  quiet. 

malalison  factious,  quarrelsome. 

V  lalis,  to  contradict,  to  argue,  to  plead, 

to  fight. 
lamin 

sog  tinangan  noc  sa  lamin  guinolal 
antocos,  spectacles. 
lamnen  all,  everything.     Cf.  lonan. 
lamo  you. 

magbaal  lamo  noc  sulal,  did  you  work 
in  the  orchard? 
Vcamo,  id. 
lamot  to  play.     Cf.  megleymet. 
lana 

gotao  noc  socogan  gopia  gombagol  nog 
lana,  a  person  of  great  strength. 
lanao  (danao)  lake,  marsh. 
miglanao  ic  tubig,  lake. 

V  lanao,  danao,  lake,  marsh.     Bontoc 

Igorot:  tjdnaom,  water. 
lanas 

dugnayan  ig   lanas  no  gotao  mapiai- 

guindog,  elegance,  gallantry. 
galad  nog  llayan  lanas  socpocbolog  noc 
sura  soc  tubigan,  a  cane  inclosure 
for  catching  fish. 
lanayan  a  young  sow. 
landasan  a  sketch.     Cf.  laraban. 
laneg  lard. 

laneg  baboy,  lard  of  the  wild  hog. 
Bontoc  Igorot:  lanib,  lard. 
lankep  embroidery. 
lansang  nail,  spike. 

V  lansang,  id. 
lansuk  candle. 
lantaka  cannon. 
lanut  hemp,  fiber,  jute. 
langaan  door. 
langag  throat. 

langag  a  bird  which  builds  a  sand  mound  to 

cover  her  very  large  reddish  egg. 
langan  to  delay. 

alanganan  (a  :  langan  :  an)  to  delay. 

V  langanlangan,  to  interrupt,  to  stop 

work,  to  delay. 
langau  a  fly. 

V  langao,  every  species  of  fly. 
langay 

poctalo   nogompia   pinili  ec   talonong 
molomo  noc  paglangay,  fluent. 
langit  sky. 

diuata  langit,  good  spirits  of  the  sky 
who  drink  only  spring  water. 

gelektti  langit  bidan,  good   spirits  of 
the  moon. 

V  langit,  sky. 

laraban  (?  laraoan)  Cf.  landasan. 

laraban  nga  ologan  somala  alandon, 
emblem. 

V  ladaoan,  image,  picture. 
lare  king.     Cf.  gare. 

V  hari,  id. 


196 


THE   SUBANU. 


laroon  sickness. 

laroon   nog   guimood,   ulcer,   wound, 

sore. 
laroon  migalin,  syphilis. 
laronon  (laro  :  n  :  on)  sick. 

maligat  nogpog  laronon,   he  is  very 
sick. 
lasag  a  shield. 

Ilocano:   kaldsag,   id.     Bontoc   Igorot: 
kaldsay,  id. 
latin  the  same. 

pogovitan  nog  latin,  identical,  the  same. 

V  linatin,  identical. 
lauas  body. 

V  laoas,  id. 
layag  a  sail. 

Tagalog,  Pampangas ;  layag,  id.    Malay : 
layar,  id.     Cf.  Samoa,  la. 
layo  distant. 
malayo  far. 

V  layo,  at  a  great  distance. 
lee  man. 

lee  nog  tapolan,  rogue,  swindler. 
balu  nog  lee,  widower. 
tiuan  nog  lee,  drone. 
gaps  nog  lee,  grandfather. 
Vlalaqui,  male,  man.    Malay  /cH,  male, 
man,  married  man. 
leeg  (leg)  neck,  throat,  front  of  the  neck, 
(gleeg,  Christie.) 

V  liog,  neck,  throat. 
leen  Cf.  laen. 

socsocalhugay  nog  leen,  alienable. 
maaron   nog    leen    noc    pomotangon, 
identical. 
leenleen  men,  people. 

V  lainlain,  id. 
leg  Cf.  leeg. 
legdey  jacket. 
leinlein  Cf.  leen. 

sogombaya  nog  moloon  nog  magleinlein, 
a  relative. 

V  calainan,  difference. 
lelenaan  bottle. 
lelenguan  joint. 

leletek  hollow  under  the  knee.    Cf.  taktuai. 
lema  to-morrow.     Cf.  luma,  belema. 
lepet  meal,  ground  grain. 
lerme  (?  lomi)  to  spread. 

socmoglerme  nog  hasac,  plasterer. 
leyag  Cf.  Hag. 
Hag  happy. 

maliag  to  wish,  to  like. 

di  maliag  song  naan  nong  mogulang, 
my  parents  do  not  wish  it. 
Malay:  riya,  joy.     Formosa:  reia,  id. 
libac  fault-finding. 

poglibac  slander,  calumny. 

V  libac,  to  criticise,  to  detract. 
libaliba  to  astonish. 

poclibaliba,  id. 
libang  to  embarrass. 

V  libang,  id. 
libang  to  hush  children. 

V  libang,  id. 
libon  Cf.  libun. 

1  ibon  compact,  solid,  massive. 


libongan  peaked  house-ridge. 

V  ibobongan,  ridgepole;  bobong,  thatch. 
libot  around. 

poglibol  so  nga  linonsoran,  to  measure 
around. 
alibutan  (a  :  libut  :  an)  the  world. 
malipotot  (maliputut)  round. 

V  libot,  to  encircle,  to  surround,  to  go 

around. 
libun  (libon,  libong)  woman. 

libon  noc  poloponan,  pregnant. 

bata  nog  balii  libun,  a  widow's  son. 

balu  nog  libon,  widow. 

ponopotan  sapis  soc  nga  libon  perealon 
sogduma  noc  tapis,  skirt. 

buatsocpog  libon  no  gotao,  lues  venerea. 

libong  noc  tobon  nog  dinamog  bata, 
barren  woman. 
libut  Cf.  libot. 
libuyu  (labuyu)  wild. 

limansud  libuyu,  wild  cock. 

daluan  libuyu,  wild  hen. 
liga  flame. 

liga  nogombagol,  blaze,  firelight. 

V  siga,  a  flame,  to  blow  a  fire. 
ligo  to  bathe. 

poligo  id. 

V  ligo,  id. 

liingan  the  acts  which  are  prohibited  to 

widowers  and  widows. 
liluk  tattooing. 
lima  five. 

limapulu  fifty. 

V  Bontoc  Igorot,  lima,  five. 
limalima  a  jar  valued  at  5  piculs  of  rice. 
limansud  domestic  rooster. 

limansud  libuyu,  wild  cock. 
limayas  a  smooth  spear  head. 
limbong  to  defraud.     Cf.  lingbon,  linun- 
bogan. 
sogmicalimbong  delusive. 
molimbong  impostor. 

V  limbong,  to  rob,  to  defraud,  to  cheat, 

to  trick. 
limukun  a  bird  of  evil  omen;  when  seen  or 

heard  it  postpones  work. 
linagami  (1  :  in  :  agami)  wild  spinach. 

V  dagami,  straw,  stubble. 
linao  fair  weather. 

V  linao,  id.     Sulu:  malano,  id.     Bontoc 

Igorot:  allnoao,  shade. 
lines  (1  :  in  :  es)  to  dissolve. 

poglines  sog  quinaan,  digestion. 
poglines  somala  alandon  sog  tobig  sog 

vino,  to  dissolve. 

V  hilis,  to  digest,  to  dissolve. 
linok  bay,  gulf. 
linonsoran  Cf.  lonsod. 

lintisan  the  leg  below  the  knee,  shin.     Cf. 
belintis. 
lintisan  sising,  a  ring  for  the  shin. 
lintoc 

boligan  macalintoc,  a  small  wild  bee. 
linug  earthquake. 

linunbogan  (1  :  in  :  unbog  :  an).     Cf.  lim- 
bong. 
soglinunbogan   sogpiglologosogan,   de- 
luded. 


SUBANU-ENGUSH  VOCABULARY. 


197 


lingalinga  to  distract. 

di  a  moglingalinga  soc  simbaan,  be  not 
inattentive  in  church. 

V  lingaolingao,   to  distract,  to  divert 

attention. 
linganay  bell. 

V  linganay,  id. 

lingbon  fallacy.     Cf.  limbong. 
linggit  arm  ring. 

lingin  rounded,  bent,  globular,  spherical. 
calingin  (ca  :  lingin)  to  twist. 
caliuanag  no  calingin,  warped. 
somala  alandon  nong  molingin,  glob- 
ular. 

V  lingin,  rounded,  twisted. 
iingulingu  a  jar  valued  at  laf  piculs  of  rice. 
lioat  to  procreate. 

sogmoglioat  generating. 

sogdoon  ig  gaoni  nog  poglioat,  genera- 
tive. 

V  lioat,  to  have  descendants,  to  descend 

from. 
lipay  to  be  happy. 

alipayan  (a  :  lipay  :  an)  joy,  happiness. 
malipay  (ma  :  lipay)  happy. 

long  na  malipay,  why  are  ye  merry? 
milipay  enjoyment,  to  comfort. 

milipayyo  nogombagol,  I  am  very  glad. 

V  lipay,  to  be  happy,  contented,  to  re- 

joice, to  comfort.     Bontoc  Igorot: 
paley-atjek,  to  make  glad. 
lipu  arrow. 

lipu  pana,  id. 
lisan  a  metal  scraper. 
lisod  diflScult. 

alisod  (a  :  lisod)  misfortune. 

V  lisod,  calisod,  difficulty,  misfortune, 

inconvenience. 
litobong  a  blow,  stroke. 

V  hagbong,  id. 
liu  Cf.  caliuanag. 

minsan  liu,  third  eighth  of  the  moon. 
minsan  liu  gulang  bulan,  sixth  eighth 

of  the  moon. 
dua  liu,  seventh  eighth. 
liut  left. 

bingcon  dig  liut,  left  arm. 
llayan  canes. 

Vcaoayan,  id. 
load  a  cocoanut  shell  used  to  stir  boiling 

rice. 
lobung  to  bury. 

alobungan  (a  :  lobung  :  an)  a  grave. 
poclubung  to  bury. 

V  lobong,  to  bury. 

lobungan  supper,  evening  meal.    Cf.  bong. 
locao  (lucao)     (?  Spanish  lugar.) 
locao  sog  beninalan,  cottage. 
pacpanilong  sog  locao,  to  withdraw 
into  barracks. 
locpog  to  pound,  to  bruise. 
pocalocpog  poimding. 
iocud  Cf.  logud. 
log 

pocolog  to  move. 

pocolog  nog  guilid  sopogloguinaod  boc- 
tasan,  to  pant. 


log — continued. 

polog  sa  golo  debaloy  bo  debaloy,  nod  of 
the  head. 

V  lihoc,  to  be  uneasy,  ill  at  ease. 
logalin  (log  :  al  :  in) 

paglogalin  to  alter. 

V  Iain,  different;  paglain,  to  alter. 
logmo  to  blame. 

toma  a  logmo  song  neen,  why  blamest 
thou  him? 
logoc  bay,  gulf. 

V  looc,  id. 
logong  to  thunder. 

V  logon,  id. 
logua 

poquipos  somala  alandon  soglogua  noc 
caban,  to  pack  into  a  trunk. 
logud  (Iocud)  back. 

V  licod,  id. 

lolan  load  (of  ship,  cart,  beast  of  burden). 
poclolan  somala  alandon,  to  ship  cargo. 

V  lolan,  load. 
lolat  to  hope. 

V  holat,  id. 
loletoec  a  bird. 

V  toad  toad,  a  bird  which  continually 

nods  its  head. 
lolid  to  fall  into  a  pit,  cripple. 

V  lolid,  cripple. 
lologosogan  deluded. 
lombo  fat. 

malombo  (ma  :  lombo)  fat. 
poclombo  to  grow  plump. 
lombos  to  divide,  to  separate. 

cota  nog  lombos  lupa,  a  wall  between 
fields. 
lomi  to  varnish.     Cf.  lerme. 

poglomi  somala  alandon,  varnishing. 
poglomi  no  gapog  somala  alandon,  to 
whitewash. 
lomo  able,  easy. 
molomo  easy. 

molomo  mayac,  inclined  to  love. 
poctalo    nogompia   pinili  ec  talonong 
molomo  noc  paglangay,  fluent. 
pocolomo  facility,  easiness. 

pocolomo  balon  somala  alandon,  ability. 
sogmolomo  easy. 

sogmolomo  antosan,  light,  bearable. 
sogmolomo  moc  sogao,  weeper. 
lomo  to  educate. 
lompoc  to  gather,  to  accumulate,  to  unite. 

V  tapoc,  id. 

lonan  all,  every.     Cf.  lamnen. 
lonao  green. 

malonao  (ma  :  lonao)  id. 

galonaonen  (ga  :  lonao  :  nen)  green 
things. 

V  lodhao,  green  (color). 
lonoon 

gosog  nog  lonoon,  a  chief. 
lonsod  (lunsud)  village,  region,  country. 

tontoltontol  balos  nog  mibatog  sog  lon- 
sod, rumor,  gossip. 
pogogointan  somala  nog  gare  sogom- 
bagol  noc  lonsod,  idiom,  language. 
linonsoran  (1  :  in  :  onsod  :  an). 


198 


THE   SUBANU. 


lonsod — continued. 

poglibot  so  mga  linonsoran,  to  measure 
around. 

V  longsod,  village,  town,  any  place  of 

human  residence. 
longarandon 

bata  noc  poraigon  gopia  bo  longaran- 
don, spoiled  child. 
longas  pretty. 

alongas  to  embellish. 
malongas  (malungas)  beautiful,  good. 
paalongas  kindness. 
looc  lungs. 
lood 

pod  cod  to  kneel. 

V  lohod,  id. 
loon  much,  many. 

pocoloon,  id. 

pocoloon  noc  sabao,  succulence,  juici- 
ness. 
Vdaghan,  much,  many. 
loon  to  place. 

aloonan  nog  gayoonan,  raft,  wooden 
float. 
caloonan  a  bunch  of  flowers  or  fruit  on 
one  stalk. 
caloonan  nog  booc,  false  hair. 
caloonan  somala  alandon  noc  tinongol, 

spun  fiber. 
socpocoloon  mepono,  a  filler. 
V  loon,  to  place,  to  set  some  things  on 
others. 
loonan  a  crowd. 
loop  to  fill. 

V  locop,  id. 

loot  a  knife  used  by  women. 
lopa  (lupa)  earth,  land,  soil. 

nogmigbaal  sog  lopa,  a  day  laborer. 

lopa  nogompia  balan,  arable. 

lopa  nong  napo  nogondaay  magpondo- 
pondo,  a  plain. 

lopa   mogondaapa   balay   gorocan   bo 
pomolonan,  uncultivated. 

cota  nog  lompos  lupa,  a  wall  between 
fields. 

soc  lupa  noclibogol  guinale,  glebe. 

lupa  nong  moromos,  a  marsh. 

gogba  nog  lupa,  to  establish  bounda- 
ries. 

V  lopa,  earth,  world. 
lopong  exact,  just. 

somoglopong  equalizer. 
sopocegiopong  identically. 

V  topong,  equal,  alike. 
lopugu  tired. 

loroon  to  pass. 

pocgondaay  loroon,  impassable. 
lotang  to  fire  a  cannon. 

lotang  nog  daan,  an  ancient  piece  of 
artillery. 

V  lothan,  any  firearm,  discharge  of  fire- 

arms. 
lotao  to  float. 

somala  alandon  nogmiglotao,  boating.. 

V  lotao,  id. 

loto  to  cook,  to  stew. 
moloto  decoction. 

V  loto,  id. 


loya  ginger. 

V  loyaloya,  an  herb  resembling  ginger, 

good  fodder  for  carabao. 
lua  a  tear. 

ig  lua,  shedding  tears,  weeping. 

V  luha,  id.     Bontoc  Igorot: /ua,  id. 
luang  hole. 

luang  talinga,  the  orifice  of  the  ear. 
luay  married. 
lubing  wild  cat. 
lucao  Cf.  locao. 

lucao  nonguinca,  hole  in  a  wall. 
ludan  a  hut,  shanty. 
lugbas  to  pierce. 

soquit  nong  milugbas,  a  hole  bored 
from  side  to  side. 

V  lapos,  to  pierce. 
lulu  granary. 

lulu  tongalang,  cylindrical  baskets  of 
rattan,  5x10  feet  long,  used  for  the 
storage  of  crops. 
luma  to-morrow.     Cf.  lema,  belema. 

V  ogma,  odma,  id. 
lumbia  sago. 

lunai  a  resin  which  is  burned  to  attract  wild 
bees  that  they  may  guide  the 
hunters  to  the  nest. 

lunsud  Cf.  lonsod. 

lupa  Cf.  lopa. 

lupag  poison  used  to  kill  an  enemy. 

lusung  mortar  for  hulling  rice. 
Bontoc  Igorot:  lilson,  id. 

ma-  formative  prefix. 

V  ma-,  prefix  which  forms  ad jectives  f rom 

abstracts,  forms  verbs  neuter  and 
intransitive. 
maa  (naa)  yes. 

V  00,  id. 
maal  elevated. 
maasasala  Cf.  sala. 

maca-  (maa-)  formative  prefix. 

V  maca-,  prefix  which  forms  future  verbs; 

also  with  the  doubling  of  the  first 
two  letters  forms  nouns  of  agent 
or  adjectives  of  possibility. 

macabagol  Cf.  bagol. 

macabolo  Cf.  bolo. 

macalintoc  Cf.  lintoc. 

madagel  Cf.  dagel. 

madalag  Cf.  dalag. 

maen  the  whole  areca  nut,  not  sliced  for 
chewing. 

maga-  Cf.  maca-. 

magagauid  Cf.  gauid. 

magalin  to  disturb. 

sogondi  magalin,  imperturbable. 

V  balhin,  to  move  from  one  place  to 

another. 
magasa  Cf.  gasa. 
magatus  one  hundred. 

Tihu:  dtus.     Iliwaki:    d.tus.     Mahuan: 

rdtu. 
magatus  bo  sepulu,  no. 
magaus  Cf.  gaus. 
magbaal  Cf.  baal. 
magboot  Cf.  boot, 
magdagel  Cf.  dagel. 


SUBANU-ENGLISH   VOCABULARY. 


199 


mageleabed  the  upper  arm. 
magimpang  a  pair  (of  hands,  feet,  ears). 
maglaro  passable. 

sogondi  maglaro,  impassable. 
magleinlein  Cf.  leinlein. 
magpondopondo  Cf.  pondopondo 
magulaung  Cf.  gulang. 
maimo  able,     (ma  :  imo.) 

gola  maimo,  able  to  contain. 

sogondi  maimo  guilason  boocon, 
visible. 

pocondi  maimo  soc  sala,  sinlessness, 
impeccability. 

V  hino,  to  make,  to  be  able. 
mainit  Cf.  init, 

malaat  Cf.  laat. 
malagos  Cf.  lagos. 
malalas  Cf.  lalas. 
malali  Cf.  lalis. 
malalison  Cf.  lalis. 
malapati  a  tame  pigeon. 

gakpis  malapati,  young  tame  pigeon. 
malat  Cf.  laat. 
malayo  Cf.  layo. 
maliag  Cf.  Hag. 
malibogayon  Cf.  bogay. 
malibonoay  Cf.  bono, 
maligai  spirit  house. 
maligat  ver>-. 

maligat  nogpog  laronon,  he  is  very  sick, 
maligon  compact,  solid,  massive. 

V  maligon,  id. 
maligos 

maligos  ha  tugaling,  is  he  worse? 
malilang  gunpowder. 
malimatay,  Cf.  matay. 
malinao  lemon.     Cf.  lonao. 
malinut  Cf.  kumpau. 
maliolaon  Cf.  clang, 
maliondocon  Cf.  ondoc. 
malipay  Cf.  lipay. 
maliputut  Cf.  libot. 
malisogon  Cf.  sogao. 
malobay  weak,  feeble. 
malogou  difficult. 
malombo  Cf.  lombo. 
malomo  excrement  of  a  child. 
malomo  Cf.  lomo. 
malonao  Cf.  lonao. 
malonca  idler. 
malongas  Cf.  longas. 
maloong 

sogmoggosig  maloong,  barker. 
maloot  generously. 

V  lolot,  generous,  freehanded. 
maiungas  Cf.  longas. 
mama  to  chew. 

mama  sog  mamaen,  to  chew  betel. 
mamaen  betel  prepared  for  chewing. 
mamanua 

diuata  mamanua,  good  spirits  which 

live  in  great  trees  and  drink  rice 

beer. 
mamis  Cf.  mis. 
mamatud    a    daylight   ceremony   with    a 

lighted  torch  to  awaken  the  soul  of 

the  dead. 


managat  fisherman.     Cf.  polomongwit. 

V  mananagat,  id. 
manak  paternal  uncle. 

manamat  evil  spirits  which  devour  the  souls 
of  the  human  joints  and  cause  a 
man  to  take  to  his  bed;  they  may 
even  take  away  his  breath-soul; 
three  classes  are  known  as  munluh, 
sarut  and  gwakgwak. 

manamat   bulan,   evil   spirits   of  the 
moon  which  cause  it  to  disappear. 
manamu 

manamu    sog    manuk,    to    eat    the 
chicken. 
mananap 

gohe  mananap,  sweet  potato. 

mananap  maaron  nog  osa,  gazelle. 

mananap  momaron  no  guilos,  civet. 

V  mananap,  any  kind  of  animal. 
manatud  wild  pigeon. 

manaul  a  fish-catching  bird. 
mandawan  full  moon. 
mando  to  make. 

sogmimando  manufacturer. 
manece  to  go  up. 

dali  a  manece,  go  thou  up  quickly. 
manisan  third  finger.  Cf.  palamanis. 
manoc  (manuk)  fowl. 

manoc  nog  pogone,  cackler. 

pogone  nong  mga  manoc,  to  crow. 

tondong  song  ang  manoc,  gallinaceous. 

bonua  nocpog  balidyaan  nongong  ma- 
noc, cockpit. 

V  manoc,  fowl.     Bontoc  Igorot:  monok, 

chicken. 

manocmanoc  small  fowl  with  open  eye. 

poctubo  sog  bombol  nog  manocmanoc, 
to  become  fledged. 

manon 

sogmocsamoc  sa  manon  no  gotao,  mo- 
lester. 

manubu  spirits  which  control  hunting; 
they  are  described  as  creatures 
with  reddish  or  j-ellowish  eyes, 
black  complexion  and  woolly  hair. 
Christie  appositely  suggests  that 
thus  is  preserved  a  dim  memory  of 
the  former  Negrito  autochthons,  on 
which  compare  the  manahune  {The 
Polynesian  Wanderings,  page  22). 
dali  amo  din  amo  manubua,  come 
quickly  for  the  hunt,  ye  spirits. 

manunsuma  to  eat. 

mangampon  Cf.  gampo. 

mangangabang  Cf.  gabang. 

mangud  green,  unripe. 

manguidaap  glaucous. 

maomao 

song  mogmaomao  somala  alandon,  fal- 
sifier. 

mapalam  mango,    (manpalam,  Christie.) 

mapia  Cf.  pia. 

mapiaiguindog  Cf.  pia,  guindog. 

dugnayan  ig  lanas  no  gotao  mapiai- 
guindog, elegance,  gallantry. 

maralag  Cf.  dalag. 

maranaya  (moronaya)  slope,  declivity. 

V  hanayhay,  id. 


200 


THE   SUBANU. 


mansa 

gonos  nong  marisa,  bad  weather, 
marongot  irritated. 

V  maligotgoton,  irritated,  annoyed. 
marope  Cf.  dope. 

masalag  Cf.  salag. 

masalagtau  a  deputy  chief  {masalag,  grtaX; 

tao,  man). 
masin  salt. 

V  asin,  id.     Bontoc  Igorot:  asin,  id. 
mata  the  eye. 

V  mata,  id.     Bontoc  Igorot:  wo/c,  id. 
matagas  Cf.  kumpau. 

tnatalao  Cf.  talao. 
matamot  modesty. 

matansa  an  herb  medicine  used  in  child- 
birth ;  the  leaf  is  crushed  and  rubbed 
on  the  patient's  abdomen  during 
labor. 
matas  Cf.  taas, 
matay  to  die 

amatayon  (a  :  matay  :  on)  death. 
amatene  death. 

camatayon  (ca  ;  matay  :  on)  death. 
pocamatay  (poca  :  matay)  death. 
malimatay  (mali  :  matay)  ceremony 
of  causing  the  souls  of  the  dead  to 
ascend  into  the  sky. 

V  matay,   patay,  death;  camatayon, 

fatal  disease;  pagcamatay,  to  die. 
Bontoc  Igorot:  tdoy,  edoy,  odoy, 
death ;  mapadoyX^\\e.6.\mamaddyak, 
I  am  dying. 

matia  lard  of  the  wild  hog. 

matogos  (matugos)  attentive,  diligent. 

matubud 

diuata  matubud,  good  spirits  of  the 
mountains  which  drirdc  only  coco- 
nut water. 

matugas  hard. 

V  tiga,  hard,  tough. 
maya  inactivity. 

maya    nia    ce    pagbasa,    read    thou 
quietly. 
may  aba  long. 
mayac  worthy. 

sogondi  mayac  mogbaat  moglanglaang, 
idler,  vagabond. 
mayac  Cf.  ayac, 
meaon  dwarf. 

soc  tolipaon  meaon,  dwarfish. 

V  mayahon,  id. 
mebang  left. 

bingcon  dig  mebang,  left  arm. 
medelem  deep. 
meebog  poor,  needy. 
megleenleen  Cf.  leenleen. 
megleymet  to  romp,  to  play.     Cf.  lamot. 
megolos 

megolos  guisoc,  to  fly  into  a  rage, 
melamogampa 

balay  noc  poctonaoan  noc  potao  nog 
melamogampa  nog  lupa,  iron  works. 
melanau  Cf.  lonao. 
melenin  smooth. 
menaticaan  Cf.  gaan. 

menaticaan  no  came  inoctod  gopia, 
minced  meat. 


meneg  to  sew. 
mesequin 

mga  gotao  nog  mesequin,  rabble. 
metagan  Cf.  tagam. 
mga  plural  article. 
mi-  composition  prefix. 

V  mi-,  formative  particle  of  present  and 

future  active  verbs. 
mibotasan  Cf.  botasan. 
mica  demonstrative  pronoun. 
micaolang  Cf.  clang, 
micia  small. 
migalin 

laroon  migalin,  lues  venerea. 
migbobolong  drunkenness. 
miglanao  Cf.  lanao. 
milipay  Cf.  lipay. 
mile  poison. 

pocpoinom  nong  milo,  to  give  poison. 
pocmilo  to  poison  fish. 
miiugbas  Cf.  lugbas. 
mimug  ripe. 
mlna  first. 
minalsa 

lonpoc  nga  gotao  nog  minalsa  guilan 
somocol  noc  ponuan,  faction. 
minanukan  a  jar  valued  at  2§  piculs  of  rice. 
minatung  Cf.  tong. 

tay  minatung,  who  has  come  in? 

V  mianhi,  to  come  hither. 
minek 

ginenga  minek  gondao,  afternoon. 
minit  Cf.  init. 
minolo  na  he  is  gone. 
minoma  to  drink. 

minoma  sog  gasi,  to  drink  rice  beer. 
minsan  once. 

Bontoc  Igorot:  mamtngsan,  id. 
minsan  liu  third  eighth  of  the  moon. 

minsan  liu  gulang  hulan,  sixth  eighth. 
mintobo  Cf.  tobo. 
minubu 

diuata  minubu,   good  spirits  of  the 
mountains  which  drink  only  coco- 
nut water. 
ming 

ming  conotconot  da  ig  viste,  to  purse 
up  the  gown. 
mingopos  Cf.  obos. 
mipono  Cf.  pono. 
mipupus  the  dark  of  the  moon. 
mirapal  a  blow  given  with  the  snout  of  a 

beast. 
miremi  to  come. 

nana  a  miremi,  when  camest  thou  in? 
mis  sweet,  palatable. 

mamis  (momis)  (ma  :  mis)  sweet. 
pacamomis  (paca  :  momis). 

pacamomis  donini,  how  sweet  this  is. 
gemisnen  (ge  :  mis  :  nen)  sweetness. 

V  tamis,  sweet,  agreeable  to  the  taste. 
misauta  often. 

miskinan  poor. 

mita  ipos  to  see  at  a  distance. 

V  quita,  to  see,  to  look. 
mitagam  Cf.  tagam. 
mitom  Cf.  tom. 
mitondong  Cf.  tondong. 


SUBANU-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY. 


201 


mitubu 

diuata   mitubu,   good   spirits  of  the 
mountains  which  drink  only  coco- 
nut water. 
mo    postpositive    pronoun   of    the    second 
person  singular. 

V  mo,  genitive  second  singular. 
mobabaan  to  bewitch. 
mobiaray 

golang  guisip  nogondaapa  mobiaray, 
unliquidated. 
mobogbog 

gaan  noc  potocon  noc  tonob    somala 
alandon  nong  mobogbog,  cakes. 
moc 

tontol  noc  pigonaona  moc  nga   gotao, 

fable. 
moc  sugooa  tundong  songuca  noc  sala, 
weep  for  your  sins. 
mocsasa  Cf.  sasa. 
moctoo  to  bend. 

sogondi  moctoo,  inflexible, 
moctuman  Cf.  tuman. 
mogbaal  Cf.  baal. 
mogbatic  to  pass. 

sogondi  mogbatic,  impassable. 
mogdao  Cf.  dao. 
moglaat  Cf.  laat. 
moglanglaang  Cf.  laang. 
moglingalinga  Cf.  lingalinga. 
mogmaomao  Cf.  maomao. 
mogobol  Cf.  gobol. 
mogolot 

diuata   mogolot,    good    spirits    whose 
home  is  in  the  sea,  yet  vengeful 
when  neglected. 
mogonao  (mo  :  gonao)  cold. 

soc  tondong  gabo  nog  mogonao,  per- 
taining to  winter. 

V  bognao,  tognao,  cold. 
mogulang  Cf.  gulang. 
molimbong  Cf.  limbong. 
molingin  Cf.  lingin. 

molio  (mo  :  lie)  crooked,  curved. 
pes  nog  molio,  a  sickle. 

V  balico,  crooked,  twisted. 
molipotot  Cf.  lipot. 

molo  (muru)  face,  cheek. 
molobay  indolent. 

gotao  nog  molobay,  lazy, 
moloctin  narrow. 

baling  somala  alandon  jabas  matas  bo 
moloctin,  a  bandage. 
molomo  Cf.  lomo. 
moloon 

sogombaya  nog  moloon  nog  magleinlein 
a  relative. 
moloto  Cf.  loto. 
momaron  Cf.  aron. 
momis  Cf.  mis. 
momoc  to  soften. 

momoc  posol,  id. 

V  homoc,  to  soften,  to  mellow,  to  miti- 

gate. 
mondoc  Cf.  ondoc. 
moneec  to  go  up. 
monepes  Cf.  nepes. 


mom  spear. 

moni  aron  noc  taliaman,  a  spear. 
men  logos  iniquitous. 

V  mamomogos,  id. 
monoog  to  descend.     Cf.  ponoog. 

monoog  ya,  come  thou  down. 

V  naog,  noog,  manaug,  to  descend. 
moo  to  labor. 

moo  mag  baal,  laborer. 

V  moo,  to  toil  for  hire. 
mooay 

golang   guisip   ondaapa   mooay,    not 
liquidated. 
mopayat  Cf.  payat. 
mopia  Cf.  pia. 
mopong  like,  similar. 

dili  mopong,  unlike,  dissimilar. 

V  topong,  equal,  like. 
morala  to  destroy.     Cf.  corala. 

sogondi    maimo    nong    morala,    inde- 
structible. 

V  oala,  to  destroy,  to  ruin. 
morein 

morein  iposay,  there,  behold! 
moreipol  thick. 

ponopoton  nong  moreipol,  coarse  cloth. 
songag  damomog  nogombagol  bo  morei- 
pol, thick  lips. 
mori  to  come,  to  go. 

mori  niya,  come  thou  here. 
morito  ya  soc  convento,  go  to  the  con- 
vent. 
moromos  Cf.  romos. 
moronaya  Cf.  maranaya. 
mosocog  Cf.  socog. 
mosom  Cf.  som. 
mota  eye  humor,  lippitude. 

motaon  (mota  :  on)  blear-eyed. 
pocpongimotacan  tearduct. 

V  mota,  lippitude;  motaon,  blear-eyed. 
motaas  Cf.  taas. 

motagam  Cf.  tagam. 
motahap  Cf.  taap. 
motalao  Cf.  talao. 
motaon  Cf.  mota. 
motaron  Cf.  taron. 
motas  Cf.  taas. 
motobang  Cf.  tobang. 
motondong  Cf.  tondong. 
motoo  wise,  understanding. 

mogdao  motoo  tugaling,  a  clever  thief. 
motood  (motuod)  true. 

pacpangirongo  nong  motuod,  to  abjure. 
pocomotood  (poco  :  motood)  truth. 

pocponongguiling  noc  pomotangon  nog 
megleenleen  pocomotood,  to  identify. 

V  matood,  true. 

munlu  gigantic  evil  spirits  (manamat)  of 

the  forest. 
muru  Cf.  molo. 
musalabungkas    a    large    neckerchief    or 

shawl  worn  about  the  shoulders. 
musing  dead  coals. 
musop  Cf.  sop. 
mutuon  Cf.  toon. 

na  he,  she. 

V  (Haraya)  na,  he. 


202 


THE   SUBANU. 


naa  (maa)  yes,  there,  take  it. 
naan 

di  maliag  song  naan  nong  mogulang, 
my  parents  do  not  wish  it. 

mi  naan  cana,  hast  thou  dined? 
nada  chastity. 
name  our. 

V  namo,  id. 
nanaan  unhappy. 
nandao  Cf.  ondao. 
nano  when. 

nana  ec  pogulimo,  when  wilt  thou  go? 
nano  a  miremi,  when  earnest  thou  in? 

V  (Hiligayna)  cano,  sano,  id. 
napo  arable  soil. 

bonoa  nog  napo,  field. 

lopa  nong  napo  nogondaay  magpondo- 

pondo,  a  plain. 
pacanapo  tugaling,  evenness,  prairie. 

V  napo,  sandy  soil,  river  flats. 
naquilit  to  imagine. 

sogmogunauna   sognaquilit,   imagina- 
tive. 
naquit  Cf.  goit. 
nati  the  young  of  animals. 
neen  thy. 

song  neen,  to  thee. 
negmegbata  Cf.  bata. 
nenau  now. 

nenau  gondao,  to-day. 
nepes  thin. 

monepes  (mo  :  nepes)  thinness. 

V  nipis,  manipis,  pagcanipis,  thin, 
niathou.     (niya.) 

maya    nia    ce    pagbasa,    read    thou 
quietly. 

mori  niya,  come  thou  here, 
nigasoy 

sognigasoy  sonnem  nogayac,  lover. 
niguan  bee. 

V  ligoan,  id. 
nila  wax. 

nila  bonua  noc  tiuan,  beehive. 
pocongolan  nog  nila  noc  tioan,  queen 

ceU. 
manunsuma  dig  nila,  to  eat  beeswax. 
niug  coconut  fruit. 

tubig  niugniiig,  water  of  the  coconut. 
niugao  coconut  grove. 
Bontoc  Igorot:  inyug,  nlyog,  coconut. 
niya  Cf.  nia. 
niyo  you. 

song  niyo,  to  you. 

sabot  tamo  uglonan  niyo,  answer  all  of 
you. 
no 

caliuanag  no  calingin,  warped. 
buat  socpog  libonno  gotao.luesveneTea,. 
noc 

bugayan  gaco  noc  tubig,  give  me  water. 
magbaal  lamo  noc  sulal,  did  you  work 
in  the  orchard? 
nocmacabingguil  Cf.  bingguil. 
nocolonan  Cf.  olonan. 
nocpigaguanta 

piran  nocpigaguanta  somala  noctibaan, 
ignominy. 


nocpogbalidya  Cf.  balidya. 
nocpogboutolon  Cf.  boutolon. 
nocputuonan  Cf.  putuonan. 
noctapis  Cf.  tapis, 
noctibagol  Cf.  bagol. 
nog  a  particle. 

V  nga,  a  particle  which  joins  nouns  and 
adjectives  or  the  several  parts  of  a 
sentence,  and  has  the  value  of  a  rela- 
tive. 
nogale 

sogsomacay  nogale  togotan  nocponoan, 
stowaway. 
nogayac  Cf.  ayac. 
noglana  Cf.  lana. 
nogmalat  Cf.  laat. 
nogmibatog  Cf.  batog. 
nogmigbaalCf.  baal. 
nogmiglotao  Cf.  lotao. 
nogogolingon  Cf.  ogolingon. 
nogombagol  Cf.  bagol. 
nogomolang  Cf.  gulang. 
nogompia  Cf.  pia. 
nogondaay  Cf.  daay. 
nogondi  Cf.  di. 
nogonnos 

pocaolog  nogonnos,  flux,  tide. 
noguintolo  Cf.  tolo. 
nolom 

nolom  sog  lopa,  fur  seal. 
nong  a  particle  equivalent  to^nog. 
nongmoromos  Cf.  romos. 
nongmotong 

somala  alandon  nongmotong,  bristly. 
nongog 

gondeemaqui  nongog,  enchanted. 
nongong 

bonua  nocpog  balidyaan  nongong  ma- 
noc,  cockpit. 
nongguiling  Cf.  guiling. 
nonguinca 

lucao  nonguinca,  a  hole  in  a^wall. 
nooc  down. 

monoog  (mo  :  nooc)  come'down. 
ponooc  (po  :  nooc)  go  down. 
noquito  pertaining  to. 

noquito  noc  tiuan,  pertaining  to  bees. 
numungini  now,  at  this  time. 
numunggitu  now. 

V  ngalan,  a  name.     Bontoc  Igorot:  nga- 
dan,  ngdtjan,  id. 

ngisi  a  tooth. 

V  ngipon,  id. 

obos  low. 

pagobos  to  fall. 
pahubus  humility. 

paubus  nog  buot,  discouragement. 
mingopos  to  decrease. 

V  obos,  to  bow,  to  prostrate. 
ocdoc  to  pound,  to  bruise. 

pogocdoc  pounding. 

V  docdoc,  to  beat,  to  bray. 
ocom  to  judge. 

pogocom  to  judge. 
sogmogocom  a  judge. 

V  hocom,  judge,  magistrate. 


SUBANU-ENGUSH  VOCABULARY. 


203 


ocsop  to  drink.  Cf.  gacsop. 
sogmacaocsop  imbiber. 
pocoocsop  imbibition. 

V  sopsop,  to  drink,  to  suck. 
octuban  to  complete,  to  finish.     Cf.  tobos. 

sogondaay  atapusan  pingoctoban,  un- 
limited. 
ogasan 

gontbagol  noc  palongan  noc  pogogasan 
somala  alandon,  trough. 
ogboc  to  nail. 

V  ogboc,  to  thrust  into. 
ogolingon 

sopaghool  nogogolingon,  imperiously. 
oglod  to  hoard. 
ola 

pogola  noc  salapi,  to  waste,  misspend. 
maliolaon  dilapidator. 
olang  to  destro3^ 
micaolang 

nog  abilingan  nog  micaolang,  to  facili- 
tate. 
socmicaolang  obstructor. 

V  olang,  impediment;  macaolang,   in- 

convenient, hindrance. 
ologan 

laraban  nga  ologan  somala  alandon, 
emblem. 
olonan 

boniia   noc   olonan   nocpoc   tobora,    a 
spring. 
olungoban  burial  cave. 
ombos  later  on. 
ondaapa  Cf.  daap. 
ondao  day. 

soc  mopayat  soc  sala  ondao,  ephemeral. 
nandao  now, 

gondao  sun,  day,  daytime. 
gondao  noc  pocponudya,  day  of  judg- 
ment. 
cone  no  gondao,  to-day. 
nenau  gondao,  to-day. 
ginenga  minek  gondao,  afternoon. 
salan  gondao,  day  after  to-morrow. 
gektu  gondao,  noonday. 
sumibang  gondao,  sunrise. 
sindep  gondao,  sunset. 

V  adiao,    sun,    day.     Kolon:    ayido,    id. 

Tagalog:  arau,  id.     BaHyon,  Baju: 
lau,  id. 
ondl  Cf.  di. 
ondoc  fear. 

coendoc  amazement. 
gondoc  fear. 

sogondaay  gondoc,  intrepidity. 
mondoc  fear. 

sogondi  mondoc,  fearless. 
maliondocon  (mali  ;  ondoc  :  on)  cow- 
ardly. 
ticas  maliondocon,  pickpocket. 

V  hadloc,  fear. 
one  to  crow. 

pogone  to  crow. 

manoc  noc  pogone,  cackler. 
pogone  nong  mga  manoc,  to  crow. 
onsa  what,  what  thing. 


on  tod  to  ascend. 

pogontod  to  climb. 
on  to  ran  to  complete,  to  finish, 
ooao 

pogooao  to  become  rancid  or  oily. 
orol  deglutition. 

osa  (gusa)  deer;  a  Chinese  pottery  jar,  so 
called  from  its  ornament. 
mananap  maaron  nog  osa,  gazelle. 

V  osa,  deer.     Bontoc  Igorot :  ogsa,  id. 
osisang  vinegar, 

V  cosisang,  id. 

paa  (pa)  leg, 

bool  noc  paa  nog  baboy,  slice  of  pork, 
puunpaa  (puun  :  paa)  leg  above  the 
knee,  thigh. 

V  paa,  foot,  leg,  paw.     Kolon:  paa,  thigh. 
paalongas  Cf.  longas. 

pacainog  Cf.  inog, 
pacamomis  Cf.  mis. 
pacanaoron  Cf.  aron. 
pacano  (poccano)  heathen.     (Spanish  pa- 
gano). 

pogdonot  sogpoc  toon  ?wg  balos  soc  pa- 
cano, heathen. 
pacapayat  Cf.  payat. 
pacasicol  Cf.  sicol. 
pacasococ  Cf.  sococ. 
paccalauat  Cf.  calauat. 
pacpalaga  Cf.  laga. 
pacpanilong  Cf.  panilong. 
pacpinit  Cf.  init. 
pacponoog  Cf.  noog. 
pacpoyo  Cf.  poyo. 

padang  a  tall  grass  of  rapid  growth.     Cf. 
kogon. 
padangan  (padang  .  an)  a  grass  field, 
meadow. 
pagandam 

pagandain  pamotangon,  to  supply. 

pagandam  nog  gaan,  supplies. 
pagas  quickly. 
pagbaga  Cf.  baga. 
pagbaloganan  Cf.  baloganan. 
pagbasa  Cf.  basa. 
pagbontol  Cf.  bontol. 
pagcorala  Cf.  corala. 
pagdatong  Cf.  datong. 
pagdipag  Cf.  dipag. 
pagdoro  Cf.  doro. 
paghat  (pahat)  ladder,  steps. 
paglangay  Cf.  langay. 
paglogalin  Cf.  logalin. 
pagobos  Cf.  obos. 
pagonagona  Cf.  gonagona. 
pagoquion  spiritless,  dejected. 
pagsontoc  Cf.  sontoc. 
pagtingil  Cf.  tingil. 
paguisip  Cf.  guisip. 
pagusay  Cf.  gosay. 
pahat  Cf.  paghat. 
pahubus  Cf.  obos. 
pakanen  stem,  branch.     Cf.  panga. 
palad  (palag)  fortune,  luck,  happiness. 

malaat  nog  palag,  misfortune. 


204 


THE   SUBANU. 


palad  (palag)  palm  of  the  hand. 

dibaban  palad,  back  of  the  hand. 
Bontoc  Igorot:  tdlad,  palm. 
palaksan  a  bowl. 
palalabian  Cf.  labian. 
palamanis  index  finger.     Cf.  manisan. 
palapa  (pala  :  paa)  sole  of  the  foot. 

dibaban  noc  palapa,  instep. 
palay  unhusked  rice. 

Bontoc  Igorot:  pdlay,  id. 
paldon  master.     (Spanish  padron.) 

pocsuquit  noc  paldon  sogmigbuis,   to 
enroll  in  a  census. 
palina  a  fragrant  resin  burned  as  incense  in 

religious  ceremonies. 
palobaya  (palo  :  baya)  humbly. 
palon  to  extinguish. 
pocpalon,  id. 

V  palong,  id. 
palongan  trough. 

V  palongan,  id. 
palos  skein,  hank. 

V  palos,  id. 
pamotangon 

pagandani  pamotangon,  to  supply. 
pamuku  tax,  tribute  paid  to  chiefs.     Cf. 
buis. 
gantang  pamukuan,  a  basket  measure 
of  rice. 
pana  the  bow. 

Ijpu  pana,  arrow. 

V  pana,  arrow,  to  shoot  an  arrow. 
panas  fever. 

panas  minit,  to  be  feverish. 
mipanas  guien,  he  has  fever. 

V  hilanat,  fever. 
panday  carpenter. 

panday  potao,  blacksmith. 
panday  negmegbata,  midwife. 

V  panday,  to  work  at  one's  trade. 
pandayan  (panday  :  an)  ironworks,  forge. 
pandiawal  a  bitter  vine. 

panilong  (ponilong)  to  admit  to  the  house, 
to  grant  asylum. 
pacpanilong  sog  locao,   to  withdraw 
into  barracks. 

V  panilong,  to  admit  to  the  house. 
panimolang  depressed. 

pocpanimolang,     to     become     low- 
spirited. 
panit  skin  (when  on  the  animal) .    Cf .  ganit. 
bakes  panit,  a  leather  belt. 
pulo  panit,  a  red  or  brown  skin. 
pansal  a  wedge. 

panungo  a  chief  superior  to  a  timuai. 
panga  a  branch.     Cf.  pakanen. 

tongdug  panga,  a  half-grown  monkey. 
panganen  (panga  :  nen)  a  branch. 

V  sanga,  id.     Bontoc  Igorot:  panga,  id. 
pangangdan  the  light. 

pangasi  Cf.  gasi. 

panggu  turban,  handkerchief,     (pang-yu, 

Christie.) 
pangirongo 

pocpangirongo  nong  motuod,  to  abjure. 
panglamugan  a  dj-e. 


pares  equal.     (Spanish  par.) 

sogondaay  pares,  unequal. 
pasagdan  to  abandon. 

V  pasagad,  id. 
pasawit  a  large  fishnet. 
pasaylo  pardon.     Cf.  poylo. 

sogondaay  pocpasaylo,  irremissibly. 
sogondi  maimo  noc  pasaylon,  unpar- 
donable. 

V  pasaylo,  to  pardon. 
pasek  a  post.     Cf.  pasoc. 

pasobong  false  hair;  hemp  fiber  or  grass  tied 
in  a  woman's  hair  for  adornment. 
pasoc  to  nail. 

pasub  the  measure  of  a  large  jar  of  rice  beer. 
pat  (upat)  four. 
patpulu  forty. 

V  opatjfour.  Bontoc  Igorot :  ipdt.apat,  id. 
patal 

gangay  soc  patal,  to  put  balls  on. 
patay  (matay)  to  die. 
pocpatay  to  die. 

pocpatay  bisan  tonogbata  nong  mica, 
infanticide. 
pogpatayon  (pog  :  patay  :  on)  death. 

V  patay,  anything  dead.     Kolon:  pahdte, 

to  kill.     Bima:  hade,  id. 
patik  tattooing. 

Bontoc  Igorot:  fdtek,  tattoo. 
patod  brother. 

V  patod,  id. 
patubuun  a  domestic  animal. 
paubos  Cf.  obos. 

payat  to  delay,  late. 

mopayat  late. 

pacapayat  delay. 

socmopayat  soc  sola  ondao,  ephemeral. 
payung  umbrella. 

Bontoc  Igorot,  Ilocano:  payong,  id. 
pedes  sunshine. 
peed  to  slander. 

pocpeed  slander,  defamation. 

sogpopeed  defamer,  slanderer. 
peen 

pocpeen  to  alter. 

V  baihon,  physiognomy,  appearance;  to 

alter. 
pegotaran  origin,  beginning,  germ,  sprout, 
bud.     (pe  :  gatad  :  an.) 
pegotaran  somala  alandon,  initiative. 
pogbuta  noc  pegotaran  noc  stiquit,  to 
enroll  in  a  census. 
pegoyonan  Cf.  goyon. 
peinan  to  distinguish. 

socalpeinan  distinguishable. 
penongonan 

penongonan   sogogolingong   nog   buot, 
abnegation. 
penoto  (penoti,  penuti)  knife,  cutlass. 
penote  nogombagol,  machete. 
pogbonal  noc  penoto,  cutlass  stroke. 
pensa 

poquison  soc  pensa  somala  alandon,  to 
store. 
perealon  under,  beneath. 

ponopotan  sapis  soc  nga  libon  perealon 
sog  duma  noc  tapis,  petticoat. 


SUBANU-ENGLISH   VOCABULARY. 


205 


pes   chopping   knife,    14-inch    blade,    head 
round  or  square. 
pes  nog  molio,  sickle. 
pet  bitter. 

umpet  bitter. 

gapetnen  (ga  :  pet  :  nen)  bitterness. 
pia  good. 

gipianan  (gi  :  pia  :  nan)  benefit. 

gompia  (gopia)(go  :  pia)  good  conduct. 

mapia  (mopia)  (ma  :  pia)  good. 
song  mopia  pocongolan,  habitable. 

nogompia  well. 

suguiton  nia  nogompia  soc  sulat,  write 
well  thy  page. 

sagompia 

noc  macabingguil  sagompia  nog  buot 
poctobe,  detractor. 

sopogopia  ignominiously. 
picnogan  Cf.  inog. 
picongolan  Cf.  ongolan. 
picpongonnan  Cf.  pongon. 
pictoonan  Cf.  toon, 
pigagabit  Cf.  gabit. 
pigbuatan  Cf.  buat. 
pigdaoan  Cf.  dao. 
pigonagona  Cf.  gonagona. 
pigondian  Cf.  di. 
pila  ant. 

pilac  to  launch  a  ship. 
pilak  a  fighting  companion,  ordinary  soldier. 
pilak  silver  money  (Sulu). 

Bontoc  Igorot:  bilak,  money. 
pilaten  eyelid. 
pileka  eyelash. 
pili  to  elect,  to  choose. 

V  pili,  to  elect,  to  choose,  to  select.     Bon- 

toc Igorot:  piltek,  maplli,  id. 
pilong  impeded,  cripple.     Cf.  pitong. 
pimala 

buklug  pimala,  a  festival  for  the  young 
dead  or  those  recently  dead;  for- 
merly men  were  sacrificed  but  now 
a  cock  sufiices. 
pimoctong  Cf.  tong. 
pimola  borage,  wild  spinach,  creeping  vine. 
Cf.  pomolanon. 
pimolaen  a  garden. 
pimonan 

goiao  pimonan,  merchant,  factor. 
pinili  (pinuli)  good. 

poctalo    nogompia    pinili,    fluent    in 
speech. 
piniiian  to  abdicate;  wicked  people. 
socpinilian  wicked. 

V  piniiian,  the  wicked. 
pinit  Cf.  init. 

pinobalan   a  working  knife  used  also  in 

fighting.     Cf.  baal. 
pinongi 

pocgondi  soc  pinongi,  denial. 
pinoquit 

socpinoquit  leprous, 
pintas  brave,  fierce. 
pintasan  ferocious. 
capintas  (apintas)  brave. 

pocgangay  noc  capintas  abolo  socog,  to 
enervate,  to  debilitate. 

V  pintas,  id. 


pinugulan  the  wrist. 
pinuli  (pinili)  good. 

socpinuli,  id. 
pinuti  Cf.  penoto. 
pinggan  a  plate  for  food.     (?  gaan.) 
pingoctoban  Cf.  octuban. 
pingondian  Cf.  di. 
pi  ran  shame. 

nog  piran,  ignominiously. 
piran  nocpigaguanta  somala  noc  tibaan, 
ignominy. 
pisala 

poglogotaoan  pisala  noc  paroquia,  pa- 
rishioner. 
pisaiigan 

pisaligan  noc  comerciante,  factor,  mer- 
chant. 
pitangan  fish  basket. 
pitong  to  cripple.     Cf.  pilong. 
pitu  seven. 

pitupulu  seventy. 

V  pito,  seven.     Bontoc  Igorot:  pito,  id. 
po  hortatory  prefi.K. 

V  pa,  prefixed  to  verbs  gives  them  the 

signification  to  seek,  to  demand,  to 
procure  the  action  of  the  root. 

poalat  Cf.  laat. 

pobianan 

tugaya  noc  pobianan  noc  tubig,  water 
conduit. 

poc-  verb  formative  prefix. 

V  pag,  paga,  id. 
pocabolo  Cf.  bole, 
pocagagom  Cf.  agom. 
pocagobal  Cf.  gobal. 
pocalocpog  Cf.  locpog. 
pocamatay  Cf.  matay. 
pocaoid  Cf.  acid, 
pocaolog 

pocaolog  nogonnos,  flux,  tide. 
pocbalos  Cf.  balos. 
pocbasa  Cf.  basa. 
pocbiyan  to  pass. 
pocboclag  Cf.  boclag. 
pocbolong  Cf.  belong, 
pocboot  Cf.  boot, 
pocca  formative  prefix. 

V  pagca-,  prefix  formative  of  abstract 

nouns,  verbal  nouns  and  infinitives 

passive. 
poccabolong  Cf.  cabolong. 
poccadiuata  Cf.  diuata. 
poccasala  Cf.  sala. 
pocdanlag  Cf.  danlag. 
pocdiuata  Cf.  diuata. 
pocdula  Cf.  dula. 
pocgangay  Cf.  gangay. 
pocgondaay  Cf.  daay. 
pocgondi  Cf.  di. 
pocguilas  Cf.  guilas. 
poclabon  Cf.  labon. 
poclagoy  Cf.  lagoy. 
poclibaliba  Cf.  libaliba. 
poclolan  Cf.  lolan. 
poclombo  Cf.  lombo. 
poclood  Cf.  lood. 
poclubung  Cf.  lobung. 
pocmilo  Cf.  mile. 


206 


THE   SUBANU. 


poco  formative  prefix. 

V  pagca,  a  particle  wherewith  are  formed 

abstract  nouns,  verbal  nouns  and 

infinitives  passive. 
pocobaga  Cf.  baga. 
pocodope  Cf.  dope. 
pocogodaay  Cf.  daay. 
pocogoit  Cf.  goit. 
pocogondaay  Cf.  daay. 
pocolabo  Cf.  labo. 
pocolaen  Cf.  laen. 
pocolog  Cf.  log. 
pocologya  Cf.  pocoloya. 
pocolomo  Cf.  lomo. 
pocoloon  Cf.  loon, 
pocoloya  (pocologya)  weak,  infirm. 

V  pagcaloya,  id. 
pocomotood  Cf.  motood. 
pocondi  Cf.  di. 
pocongolan  Cf.  congol. 
pocoocsop  Cf.  ocsop. 
pocoromos  Cf.  romos. 
pocpalon  Cf.  palon. 
pocpanimolang  Cf.  panimolang. 
pocpangirongo  Cf.  pangirongo. 
pocpasaylo  Cf.  pasaylo. 
pocpatay  Cf.  patay. 

pocpeed  Cf.  peed. 

pocpeen  Cf.  peen. 

pocpoc  a  stroke  with  a  cutlass,  a  slash. 

pocpoli  Cf.  poll. 

pocponicol  Cf.  ponicol. 

pocpono  Cf.  pono. 

pocponongguiling  Cf.  gulling. 

pocponudya  Cf.  ponudya. 

pocpongimotacan  Cf.  mota. 

pocpongompig  Cf.  pongompig. 

pocposinao  Cf.  posinao. 

pocposoon  Cf.  posoon. 

pocpoylo  Cf.  poylo. 

pocpuasa  Cf.  puasa. 

pocpuli  Cf.  puli. 

pocquilas  Cf.  guilas. 

pocquipos  Cf.  quipos. 

pocsaloy  Cf.  saloy. 

pocsambag  Cf.  sambag. 

pocsicay  Cf.  sicay. 

pocsindilsindil  Cf.  sindil. 

pocsobblag  Cf.  sobblag. 

pocsobo  Cf.  sobo. 

pocsocay  Cf.  sacay. 

pocsod  foot.     Cf.  gocsud. 

pocsoganan  Cf.  sogao. 

pocsogo  Cf.  sogo. 

pocsolog  Cf.  solog. 

pocsopang  Cf.  sopang. 

pocsopoc  Cf.  sopoc. 

poctaab  Cf.  taab. 

poctago  Cf.  tago. 

poctalo  Cf.  talo. 

poctare  Cf.  tare. 

poctina  Cf.  tina. 

poctobang  Cf.  tobang. 

poctoboson  Cf.  tobos. 

poctolin  Cf.  tolin. 

poctolo  Cf.  tolo. 

poctoman  Cf.  tuman. 

poctontal  Cf.  tontal. 


poctontol  Cf.  tontol. 
poctontong  Cf.  tontong. 
poctuan  Cf.  tuan. 
poctuba  Cf.  tuba, 
poctubo  Cf.  tobo. 
pogambit  Cf.  ambit, 
pogangay  Cf.  angay. 
pogangol  Cf.  gangol. 
pogbaal  Cf.  baal. 
pogbaat  Cf.  baat. 
pogboclagon  Cf.  boclagon. 
pogbogay  Cf.  bogay. 
pogbollo  Cf.  bollo. 
pogbonal  Cf.  bonal. 
pogboot  Cf.  boot, 
pogbuta  Cf.  buta. 
pogdaig  Cf.  daig. 
pogdalomdom  Cf.  dalomdom. 
pogdao  Cf.  dao. 
pogdeec  Cf.  deec. 
pogdolan  Cf.  dolan. 
pogdonot  Cf.  donot. 
pogdope  Cf.  dope, 
poggare  Cf.  gare. 
poggatad  Cf.  gatad. 
poggolat  Cf.  golat. 
pogguison  Cf.  gulson. 
poglaat  Cf.  laat. 
poglibac  Cf.  libac. 
poglibot  Cf.  libot. 
poglines  Cf.  lines, 
poglioat  Cf.  lioat. 
pogliquimo  to  form,  to  shape. 

V  paghimo,  to  form,  to  make,  to  fashion, 
poglogomutan  Cf.  gomot. 
poglogonas  Cf.  gonas. 
poglogotaoan  Cf.  gotao. 
poglomi  Cf.  lomi. 
pogocdoc  Cf.  ocdoc. 
pogocom  Cf.  ocom. 
pogogasan  Cf.  ogasan. 
pogogovitan  Cf.  govitan. 
pogola  Cf.  ola. 
pogonagona  Cf.  gonagona. 
pogone  Cf.  one. 
pogontod  Cf.  ontod. 
pogooao  Cf.  ooao. 
pogood  Cf.  good, 
pogoot  Cf.  goot. 
pogosig  Cf.  gosig. 
pogovitan  Cf.  govitan. 
pogpatayon  Cf.  pataj'. 
pogsocasoca  Cf.  soca. 
pogtolog  Cf.  tolog. 

pogugba  to  whitewash.     Cf.  gapog,  lime. 
poguindog  Cf.  guindog. 
poguingcora  Cf.  guingcod. 
poguit  Cf.  goit. 
pogulatay  Cf.  ulatay. 
pogulimo  Cf.  ulimo. 
poinom  Cf.  inom. 
poli  to  revoke. 

pocogondaay  pocpoli,  irrevocabilitj'. 
poligo  Cf.  ligo. 

poloaponopoton   clothing.     Cf.   ponopo- 
ton. 

pagbontol  soc  poloaponopoton,  to  beat 
clothes. 


SUBANU-ENGUSH   VOCABULARY. 


207 


polog  Cf.  log. 

polomongwit  fisherman.     Cf.  managat. 

poloponan 

libon  HOC  poloponan,  pregnant. 
polos  gain,  profit. 

capolosan  (ca  :  polos  :  an)  gain. 

V  polos,  id. 
polupungobii  evening.     Cf.  gobii. 
pomagon  flexible. 

sogondi  7naimo  pomagon,  inflexible. 
pombaal  Cf.  bal. 
pomoctong  Cf.  tong. 
pomolanon  a  plant.     Cf.  pimolaen. 

pomolanon  pia  nog  bolong,  galium. 
pomolanon  doon  gahon  soc  poctibooc 

no  gotas,  galium. 
lopa   mogondaapa   balay   pomolonan, 
uncultivated. 
pomotangon  the  same. 

maaron    nog    leen    noc    pomotangon, 

identical. 
pocponongguiling  noc  pomotangon  nog 
megleenleen  pocomotood,  to  identify. 
ponbaal  Cf.  bal. 
(pondopondo)  magpondopondo. 

lopa  7iong  napo  nogondaay  magpondo- 
pondo, a  plain. 
ponicol  Cf.  sicol. 

pocponicol  to  set  the  feet  firmly  for  an 
effort. 

V  panicad,  id. 
ponilong  Cf.  panilong. 

ponno  to  complete,  to  finish.     Cf.  pono. 

V  pono,  to  fill,  to  augment,  to  complete. 
pono  (punu)  to  fill. 

mipono 

mipono  noc  sayop,  evil  doer. 

socpocoloon  mipono,  filler. 
songmipono  full. 

pocpono  noc  tiibig  somala  alandon,  to 
fill  with  water. 

V  pond,  to  fni,  to  be  full  of,  to  be  skilled 

in.     'B'lma.:  kamponu,  to  fiW.     Bon- 
toc  Igorot:  piinek,  id. 
pono  close,  solid,  massive. 
ponoan  (ponuan)  governor.     Cf.  poon. 
sogsomacay  nogale  togotan  noc  ponoan, 

stowaway. 
lompoc  nga  gotao  nog  minalsa  guilan 
somocol  noc  ponuan,  faction. 

V  ponoan,  governor,  lord. 

ponolud  the  farewell  or  final  ceremony  of  a 

buklug. 
ponongangan  father-in-law,  mother-in-law. 
ponongguian  model. 

V  panigingnan,   model,   type,   sample; 

ingon,  like. 
ponooc    (ponoog)   to  go  down,  to  come 
down.     Cf.  monoog. 
pacponoog  sog  laga,  to  cheapen. 

V  naog,  id. 
ponopoton  clothing. 

ponopoton  nog  daan,  old  and  ragged 

clothes. 
ponopoton  nong  moreipol,  coarse  cloth. 
poloaponopoton  (poloa  :  ponopoton) 

clothing. 

V  panSpton,  clothes. 


ponuan  Cf.  ponoan. 
ponudya  to  judge. 

gondao  noc  pocpomidya,  judgment  day. 
pongol  to  mutilate. 

socpongol  so  gomoc,  leprous. 

V  pongol,  to  mutilate. 
pongompig  Cf.  gompulo. 

pocpongompig,  to  dye  red. 
pongon  to  unite,  to  gather,  to  accumulate. 
picpongonnan  no  nga  gotao,  a  crowd. 
socmicpongon   noc  cabilinan  nogondi 
socalpocboclagon,  patrimony. 

V  ipon,  to  join,  to  unite,  to  dwell. 
pongong  to  hold. 

pocpongong  to  attach,  to  seize. 

pocpongong  somala  alandon  guinago 
bo  songa  gotao  aron  huopongon,  to 
form,  to  draw  up  troops. 

macapongong  obstructor. 

V  pogong,  to  hold,  to  catch,  to  seize. 
poon  leader.     Cf.  ponoan. 

poon  sog  mololison,  leader  of  rebels. 

poon  sog  lunsud,  chief. 
popia  cap,  hat. 
poporenion 

poporenion  mo  sog  asa-real,  tell  him  to 
come  to  the  palace. 

V  paanhion,  to  bid  come  here. 
poquicot  to  chain. 

V  hocot,  to  make  a  net. 
poquison 

poquison  soc  pensa  somala  alandon,  to 
store. 
poquit  detractor. 
pora  hunger. 
poraigon  (poraygon)  flattering. 

bata  noc  poraigon  gopia,  spoiled  child. 

V  padayigon,  a  vain  and  presumptuous 

person. 
porang  to  cure  meat  with  salt  and  smoke. 

V  bolad,  to  dry  in  the  sun. 
porongporong  a  crown. 

V  podong,  a  garland,  crown,  turban. 
porot  old  and  ragged  clothes. 
posinao  varnish. 

pocposinao  varnishing. 

V  pasinao,  id. 
posobaton  Cf.  sabot, 
posocliyan  to  change. 

sogondi  maimo  posocliyan,  immutable. 
posol 

momoc  posol,  to  soften. 
posoloron  Cf.  solot. 
posong  heart. 

guinonosola  soc  posong,  repent  with  all 
your  heart. 

cabolo  so  posong,  courage. 

V  tagiposoon,  heart. 

V  tagiposoon,   heart.     Bontoc   Igorot: 

poso,  id. 
posongu  a  religious  ceremony  at  the  end  of 
the  year  and  the  beginning  of  the 
new  year.  In  these  ceremonies 
good  luck  and  success  are  deter- 
mined by  the  phases  of  the  moon, 
the  grouping  of  the  stars,  the  throw- 
ing of  a  rope  and  its  resultant  con- 
tour when  it  lies  upon  the  ground. 


208 


THE    SUBANU. 


posongu — continued. 

the  twirling  of  a  rattan  and  the 
position  at  which  it  comes  to  rest. 
(posoon)  pocposoon  to  ascertain. 
posui  chick. 

potao  iron.     Cf.  cutao,  tonaoan. 
panday  potno,  blacksmith. 
pagbaga  noc  potao,  to  weld  iron. 
sapauan  ec  potao  somala  alandon,  to 
garnish  with  iron  points. 

V  pothao,  iron. 

poti  (pote,  puti)  white. 

poti  dalag,  the  dawn. 
gompote  (go[m]  :  poti)  white. 
pocpoti    (poc  :  poti)    to    whiten,    to 
bleach. 

V  poti,  white. 
potocon 

gaan  noc  potocon,  cakes. 
potol  to  cut,  to  divide. 

V  potol,  id. 
poylo  Cf.  pasaylo. 

pocpoylo  to  pardon. 

V  saylo,  id. 

poyo  from  side  to  side. 

pacpoyo  to  swing,  to  move  from  side  to 
side. 
poyoan  (puyuwan)  a  small  bed. 
puasa  to  fast. 

pocpuasa  fasting. 

V  poasa,  fast. 

pugan  a  tree  with  a  large  banana-like  leaf. 
pulas  fire-making  by  friction  of  wood. 
puli 

puli  musop,  again. 
pocpuli  to  repay. 

V  balos,  again. 
pulo  red. 

pulo  panit,  red  or  brown  skin. 
gompulo  (go[m]   :  pulo)  red. 
gopulonen  (go  :  pulo  :  nen)  redness  of 
the  sky. 

V  pola,  red. 

puluntu  ceremony  of  raising  the  souls  of 
the  dead. 
puluntu  nog  malimatay,  the  ceremony 
of  causing  the  souls  of  the  dead  to 
ascend  into  the  sky. 
buklug  puluntu,  a  funeral  ceremony 
for  the  aged  dead  or  for  those  long 
dead. 
pulut  boiled  rice  offered  on  the  altars  of  the 

gods. 
pumutul  lemon. 
punanen 

alaik  punanen,  why,  the  reason. 
puntian  Cf.  tian. 
puonan 

socpuonan  to  waste,  to  misspend. 

V  pohonan,  business  capital,  interest. 
pusilau  rain,  a  light  shower. 

pusu  navel. 

pusu  dagat,  the  navel  or  center  of  the 

sea. 
tian  noc  pusu,  calf  of  pusu  we  find  an 
In  this  use  of  tian  noc  the  leg. 
interesting,  yet  not  exactly  elucidatory, 


pusu — continued. 

parallel  in  Efate,  where  the  calf  of  the  leg 
is  dominated  as  here  by  terms  proper  to 
the  abdomen.  In  his  work  Oceanic  La-n 
guages,  Dr.  Macdonald  (s.v.  ate)  points 
out  that  uateau  natore,  literally  kidneys  of 
the  shin,  designates  the  calf,  and  that  the 
same  use  is  extended  to  atevae  in  Samoan, 
the  liver  of  the  leg  or  calf,  and  to  aterima 
in  Tahiti,  the  liver  of  the  arm  or  thick  part 
of  the  arm.  Upon  this  matter  I  have 
made  such  note  as  the  data  suggested  ( The 
Polynesian  Wanderings,  page  321).  It  is 
proper  to  mention  that  the  arrival  of  this 
new  material  maj^  open  the  subject  for 
further  discussion;  certainly  this  instance 
of  the  description  of  leg  anatomy  in  ab- 
dominal terms  is  very  interesting.  We 
should  observe  that  in  tian  noc  pusu  both 
nouns  pertain  to  the  belly ;  there  is  nothing 
to  suggest  the  leg,  as  is  the  case  in  Efate, 
Samoa,  and  Tahiti. 

Bontoc  Igorot:  baosig,  navel. 

puti  Cf.  poti. 

putok  grain. 

putuonan  Cf.  toon. 

mutuon   na  noc  puluouan,   did    you 
study  the  lesson? 

puunpaa  the  leg  above  the  knee,  the  thigh. 
Cf.  paa. 

puyuwan  (poyoan)  cradle,  hammock. 

quak  (guak)  the  crow.  (Visayan,  awak; 
Magindano,  kuak;  Sulu,  ivak;  Taga- 
log,  wak;  Malay,  gagak;  Yakan, 
uwak.) 

quilas  (guilas)  to  share. 
pocquilas  to  impart. 

quina-  formative  prefix. 

V  quina-  a  composition  member  of  pre- 

terit verbs. 
quinaan  (g[qu]  :  in  :  aan)  food. 

poglines  sog  quinaan,  digestion. 
quinaanglan  (quina  :  ang[o]l  :  an)  to  need, 

to  lack. 

V  quinahanglan,    id.;    hangol,    poor, 

needy. 
quipos  to  pack. 

pocquipos  to  barrel,  to  store. 

pocquipos  somala  alandon  sog  loqua 
noc  caban,  to  pack  into  a  trunk. 

V  hipos,  to  hoard,  to  store  up. 

romos  wet. 

moromos  (mo  :  romos)  wet. 

lupa  nong  moromos,  a  marsh. 
pocoromos  (poco  :  romos)  moisture. 
rongog  (ronug,  dongog)  to  hear. 

pogangay    nog    rongog,    defamation, 
slander. 

sa  an  article. 

V  sa,    nominative    article    with    proper 

nouns. 
sa  one. 

V  osS,  id.     Bontoc  Igorot:  isa,  id. 


SUBANU-EJNGLISH   VOCABUI^ARY. 


209 


saa  a  sprout,  shoot. 

songoc  saa  mintobo  noc  salalis,  a  bunch 
of  flowers  or  fruit  on  a  single  stalk. 

V  saha,  shoot,  sprout. 

saac  to  ask,  to  question,  to  inquire. 

V  socna,  to  inquire,  to  ask. 
saayan  Cf.  sacay. 

sabab  because,  reason,  cause.     (Arabic.) 
alaik  sabab,  why,  the  reason. 

sabao  juice. 

pocoloon  noc  sabao,  succulence,  juici- 
ness. 
sogdoon  cisabaon,  juicy. 

sabay  to  dance. 

V  sabay,  id. 
sabilino  onion. 

sabot    (sabut,   sobot)    to  understand,   to 

comprehend,  to  agree. 
gangay  noc  sabot,  to  accede,  to  agree. 
sabot  tamo  iiglonan  niyo,  answer  all  of 

j^ou. 
saboton 

gondaay  saboton,  idiocy. 
gotao  nogondaay  saboton,  idiot. 
posobaton    mo    guilan,    make    them 

answer. 

V  sabot,  to  understand,  to  comprehend, 

to  agree. 
sac  Cf.  see,  sog,  sag. 
sacay  (socay)  boat,  ship,  vessel. 
pocsacay  embarking,  shipping. 
pocosacay  id. 
saayan  vessel,  boat. 
somacay  (s  :  om  :  acay) 

sog  somacay  nogale  togotan  noc  ponoan, 
stowaway. 

V  sacay,  boat,  ship,  to  embark,  to  sail. 
sacguionaona  Cf.  gonagona. 

sacog  parishioner. 

V  sacop,  id. 

sag  Cf.  sac,  see,  sog. 

pacpanilong  sag  locao,   to  withdraw 
into  barracks. 
sagatad  impostor. 
sagompia  Cf.  pia. 
saguing  banana. 

gasa  saguing,  a  cigarette  wrapped  in 
banana  leaf. 

V  saguing,  id.     Bontoc  Igorot :  saking,  id. 
saguit  (suguit)  to  write. 

suguiton  nia  nogompia  soc  siilat,  write 
well  thy  page. 
sala  sin,  evil  doer. 

songuca  noc  sala,  thy  sins. 
pocondi  maimo  soc  sala,  impeccability. 
sogondi  maimo  noc  sala,  impeccable. 
maasasala  sinner. 
poccasala  to  sin. 

V  sala,  sin,  fault,  error. 
sala  (sa,  isa)  one. 

socmopayat  soc  sala  ondao,  ephemeral. 
salabuk  one. 

salabuk  tondo,  first  finger. 
salag  (salang)  a  ne.st. 
salag  great. 

masalag  (ma  :  salag)  large. 

tubig  masalag,  a  river. 


salag — continued. 

gasalagnen  (ga  :  salag  :  nen)  great- 
ness, magnitude,  a  person  great  in 
mind  or  power. 
salalis 

songoc  saa  mintobo  noc  salalis,  a  bunch 
of  flowers  or  fruit  on  a  single  stalk. 
salamin  looking-glass. 

Bontoc  Igorot:  sdlming,  id. 
salan 

salan  gondao,  day  after  to-morrow. 
salapang  fish  spear  (Sulu). 
salapi  money,  coin,  silver. 

timod  noc  salapi,  to  hoard. 
pogola  noc  salapi,  to  waste,  to  mis- 
spend, to  .squander. 
salapian  (salapi  :  an)  rich,  renowned. 
lee  nog  salapian,  wealthy  man. 

V  salapi,  money.     Bontoc  Igorot:  silapi, 

half  peso. 
salau  earth,  ground. 
saleg  floor. 

salidingan  bunches  of  long  strips  of  anahau 
leaves  carried  when  dancing  around 
the  altar. 
saliling  a  deputy  chief. 
salomaya  a  tree  under  whose  shade  spirits 
rest  and  sleep  when  they  come  to 
earth. 
saloy  to  buy. 

pocsaloy  merchant,  factor,  to  sell. 
somaloy  (sumalui)  (s  :  om  :  aloy)  to 
buy. 
salumnenka  to  rob,  to  steal. 
salwal  trousers  (Sulu). 
sama  similar,  like,  equal. 

sama  gotao,  fellow  creature. 
sopocsama  identical. 
pocsama  identity. 
somogsama  to  equalize. 
somama  (s  :  om  :  ama)  similar. 
di  somama,  dissimilar. 

V  sama,    equal,    like,    similar.     Kolon: 

sama,  with.     Bima:  sama,  id. 
sambag  to  exhort. 

pocsambag  to  instruct. 
senombagan  (s  :  en  :  ombag  :  an)  to 

instruct. 

V  sambag,  to  counsel,  to  exhort,  to  in- 

struct. 
samoc  to  weary,  to  vex,  to  molest. 
casamoc  to  embarrass. 

sogmocsamoc  sa  manon  no  gotao,  mo- 
lester. 

V  samoc,  to  discommode,  to  distress,  to 

vex,  to  molest. 
sanduk  wooden  spoon. 
sansang  blunt,  dull. 

V  sangsang,  id. 

sangay  to  adorn,  to  embellish. 
sangol 

tundong  sa  cabayo  nga  sangol  sog  baba, 
bit. 
sangyawa  breeches  reaching  to  the  knee. 
saoan  perhaps. 
sapasapa  brook,  rivulet.     Cf.  suba. 


210 


THE    SUBANU. 


sapauan  to  garnish. 

sapauan  ec  potao  somala  alandon,  to 
garnish  with  iron  points. 

V  sapao,  to  put  one  thing  upon  another. 
sapi  a  cow. 

sapiai  a  mat  of  split  bamboo. 
sapingi  Cf.  sopingi. 
sapis 

ponopoton  sapis  soc  nga  libon  perealon 
sog  dtima  noc  tapis,  petticoat. 
sapulu  ten. 

sapulu  ho  sala,  eleven. 

magatus  bo  sapulu,  no. 

V  napdio,  ten.     Bontoc  Igorot :  polo,  po'o, 

sinpo'o,  id. 
sarol  a  hoe.     (Spanish  azada.) 
sarut  pygmy  evil  spirits  (manamat)  of  the 

forest. 
sasa 

malali  yamo  mocsasa,  be  you  quiet. 
sasac  suffocating  heat. 
sawa  wife.     Cf.  soay. 

Kayan,  hawa,  id.     Cf.  The  Polynesian 
Wanderings,  page  306. 
sawan  cup. 
sayop  evil,  deceit. 

mipono  noc  sayop,  evil  doer. 
soc  sayop,  uncertainty,  mistake. 

V  sayop,  lies,  deceit. 
sayoran  to  define,  to  explain. 

casayoran  (ca  :  say  or  ran). 
casayoran  nog  daan,  itinerary. 

V  sayod,  to  explain,  to  define. 

sebat  hunting  spear  with  detachable  head. 
seda  fish.    Cf.  sora. 

inangkag  seda,  dried  fish. 
seel  heel. 
seilad  sickle. 
selang  (solang)  chin. 
selem  Cf.  diselum,  siselem,  suansolom. 
sell  pepper  plant  and  fruit. 
semicoat 

soc  lupa  noctibogol  guinale  bo  semicoat 
nog  daro,  glebe. 
senombagan  Cf.  sambag. 
sengguil  senor. 
siam  nine. 

siampulu  ninety. 

V  siam,  nine.     Bontoc  Igorot:  slam,  id. 
sibulan  a  jar. 

sibulansibulan  a  small  jar. 
sicay  to  sprinkle. 

pocsicay  noc  tuhig,  to  sprinkle  water. 
siclat  storeroom. 

V  siclit,  to  store  things  in  a  secret  place. 
sicol,  pacasicol  to  set  the  feet  firm  for  an 

effort.     Cf.  ponicol. 

V  sicad,  id. 

sigeban  (siguban)  water  jar,  bamboo  water 
tube. 

sigitan  a  bamboo  musical  instrument  re- 
sembling a  guitar  with  strings  of 
split  bamboo  raised  over  bamboo 
bridges. 

siguban  Cf.  sigeban. 

sigupan  pipe,  cigarette. 

Bontoc  Igorot:  songyopan,  pipe  stem. 


silong  underneath. 

socsilong  below,  to  go  down. 

V  silong,  under,  below. 
silup  pipestem. 

sinam 

gagun  sinam  beltlu,  sounds  of  a  gong 
which  summon  a  midwife. 
sinantan  a  jar  valued  at  one  and  one-half 
piculs  of  rice  or  three  fathoms  of 
cloth. 
sinapang  gun,  musket  (Sulu). 
sinasaka 

bukid  na  sinasaka,  land  under  culti- 
vation. 
sinbaan  (simbaan)  church. 

di  a  moglingalinga  soc  sinbaan,  be  not 
disorderly  in  church. 

V  singba,  to  perform  an  act  of  worship; 

singbahan,  church.     Bontoc  Igo- 
rot: simfdn,  church  (loan  word). 
sindep 

sindep  gondao,  sunset. 
sindepan  the  west. 
sindil  to  argue. 

pocsindilsindil  dissertation. 

V  indig,  to  argue,  to  dispute. 
sindupan  a  good  spirit  of  the  sea,  but  venge- 
ful if  neglected. 

sinipit 

socsinipit   socnaquit,    carried   in   the 
arms. 
sinonan  Cf.  sonan. 
sipa  a  baU. 
sipoon  a  cold. 

V  sipon,  to  have  a  cold. 

siselem  morning  after  sunrise.     Cf.  dise- 
lum. 
sising  finger  ring. 

lintisan  sising,  a  ring  for  the  leg  below 
the  knee. 
Bontoc  IgoroV.  slngsing,  id.  (loan  word), 
sitguag  to  disseminate. 
siyu  (siu)  elbow. 

Bontoc  Igorot :  siko,  id. 
siyuan  shuttle. 
so  an  article.     Cf.  sa. 
soay  wife.     Cf.  sawa. 

pocboclag  so  gotao  nga  soay,  to  divorce. 

V  asaoa,  wife.     Bontoc    Igorot:    asawa 

{ay  lalaki,  ay /c/ayi). husband,  wife. 
sobblag  yellow. 

pocsobblag  to  become  yellow. 
sobo  (subo)  to  boil. 

pocsobo  ebullition. 

socmocsubo  boiling. 

V  sobo,  to  extinguish  fire  with  water. 
soboton  Cf.  sabot. 

soc  preposition. 
soca  Cf.  sogao. 

socal  (socsocal)  prefix  indicating  the  possi- 
bility of  the  action  of  the  stem. 
socalan 

socalan  igbutasan,  to  abolish. 
socalpoglogomutan  Cf.  gomot. 
socaltogot  Cf.  togot. 
socay  Cf.  sacay. 
socmectuman  Cf.  tuman. 


SUBANU-ENGUSH   VOCABULARY. 


211 


socmicaolang  Cf.  olang. 
socmitondong  Cf.  tondong. 
socmocsubo  Cf.  sobo. 
socmoggosig  Cf.  gosig. 
socmopayat  Cf.  payat. 
socnaquit  Cf.  goit. 
sococ  Cf.  sogao. 
socog  strong,  strength. 

gondaay  socog,  feeble. 

pocgangay  noc  capintas  aholo  socog,  to 

enervate,  debilitate. 
gotao  noc  socogan  gopia,  a  person  of 
great  strength. 
mosocog  a  tall  robust  person. 

V  cosog,  strength. 
socorolaag  illuminative. 
socpogbaal  Cf.  baal. 
socpogboloy  Cf.  boloy. 
socpongol  Cf.  pongol. 
socpuonan  Cf.  puonan. 
socsilong  Cf.  silong. 
socsinipit  Cf.  sinipit. 
socsocalbaalan  Cf.  baal. 
socsocalbalon  Cf.  balon. 
socsocalbugay  Cf.  bugay. 
socsocalpononggulingan,  Cf.  gulingan. 
socsomagang  Cf.  somagang. 
socsomocol  Cf.  somocol. 

socsool  Cf.  sool. 
soctinalicala  Cf.  tinalicala. 
soctolipaon  Cf.  tolipaon. 
soctontol  Cf.  tontol. 
sog  a  preposition.     Cf.  soc. 
soganagana  by  and  by. 
soganan  Cf.  sogao. 
sogantol 

sogantol  nog  basa,  irreverent. 
sogao  (sugooa)  wailing  at  funerals. 
sognwloino  moc  sogao,  weeper. 
tiwc  sugooa  tundong  songuca  noc  sola, 
weep  for  your  sins. 
pocsogao  to  shed  tears. 

pocsogao  pogsocasoca,  crying,  weeping. 
pocasogao  act  of  weeping. 

sogmocsogao  nong  naqnit,  weepers. 
malisogon  weeper. 
socsocalpocsoganon  lamentable, 
pacasococ  act  of  weeping. 
sogbobaan  Cf.  bobaan. 
sogboid  Cf.  boid. 
sogboot  Cf.  boot, 
sogdogo  Cf.  dogo. 
sogdoon  Cf.  doon. 
sogduma  Cf.  doma. 
soggo  to  hiccup. 

V  sodoc,  id. 
sogicabang  Cf.   icagabang. 
sogindagosay  Cf.  gosay. 
soglinunbogan  Cf.  linunbogan. 
sogmacaocsop  Cf.  ocsop. 
sogmaglaat  Cf.  laat. 
sogmebagolan  Cf.  bagol. 
sogmecpeinog  Cf.  inog. 
sogmegatad  Cf.  gatad. 
sogmetondong  Cf.  tondong. 
sogmicaMmbong  Cf.  limbong. 
sogmigagoyan  Cf.  gagoy. 


sogmigbaal  Cf.  baal. 
sogmigbono  Cf.  bono, 
sogmigbuis  Cf.  buis. 
sogmimando  Cf.  mando. 
sogmitoiac  Cf.  toiac. 
sogmocsamoc  Cf.  samoc. 
sogmocsogo  Cf.  sogo. 
sogmogangay  Cf.  an  gay. 
sogmogbolobod  Cf.  bolobod. 
sogmogboot  Cf.  boot, 
sogmogdadao  Cf  dao. 
sogmogdoro  Cf.  doro. 
sogmoglioat  Cf.  lioat. 
sogmogocom  Cf.  ocom. 
sogmogoit  Cf.  goit. 
sogmogombal  Cf.  gobal. 
sogmogota 

sogmogota  nog  gapoy,  vomiting  fire. 
sogmogsosulat  Cf.  sulat. 
sogmogtabo  Cf.  tabo. 
sogmogunaguna  Cf.  gonagona. 
sogmololison  Cf.  mololison. 
sogmonongguiling  Cf.  gulling, 
sogmoquit  Cf.  goit. 
sognaquilit  Cf.  naquiiit. 
sognigasoy  Cf.  nigasoy. 
sogo  (sugo)  to  order,  to  define,  a  command- 
ment. 

pocsogo  to  command. 

sogmocsogo  commander. 

V  sogo,  to  command,  to  order,  to  define. 
sogod  cargo,  lading. 

dacsoc  soc  sogod,  to  stow  cargo. 

V  sooc,  id. 
sogodaay  Cf.  daay. 
sogogolingong 

penongonan    sogogolingon    nog    buot, 
abnegation. 
sogombaya  Cf.  baya. 
sogonda  Cf.  da. 
sogondaay  Cf.  daay. 
sogondi  Cf.  di. 
sogpacailig  Cf.  ilig. 
sogpacalaat  Cf.  laat. 
sogpaon  a  slap. 

V  sagpa,  id. 
sogpiglologosan  Cf.  lologosogan. 
sogpopeed  Cf.  peed, 
sogsocaibalon  Cf.  balon. 
sogsocalgunagunaon  Cf.  gonagona. 
sogtinangonan  Cf.  tinangonan. 
soguset  Cf.  guset. 

solang  Cf.  selang. 
solo  Cf.  sulu. 
solog  to  pack. 

pocsolog  to  pack  into  a  trunk. 

V  solod,  to  enter,  to  go  into. 

solom  Cf.  diselum,  siselem,  suansolom. 
solot  to  enter. 

posoloron  mo  guien,  bid  him  come  in. 

V  solod,  to  enter. 
som  sour. 

mosom  (mo  :  som)  sour, 
gosomnen  (go  :  som  :  nen)  anything 
sour. 
somacay  Cf.  sacay. 


212 


THE    SUBANU. 


somagan  a  weapon. 

bosi  doon  ec  somagan,  a  spear. 
somagang  to  block,  to  obstruct. 

socsomagang  obstructor. 
somala  adverbial  modifier.     Cf.  alandon. 
somama  Cf.  sama. 
sombag  to  answer. 

V  tobag,  id.     Bontoc  Igorot :  sumfad,  the 

answer. 
somocol  factious. 

socsomocol  so  nga  gosod,  dissenter. 

V  socol,  to  dispute,  to  argue. 
somoctoloan 

somocloloan  noc  subanon,  peasant. 
somoglopong  Cf.  lopong. 
somogot 

boclag  ondi  somogot,  defection. 
somolondon  seldom. 
somoon  skilful. 

sogondi  somoon,  unskilled. 
sompoyan  to  complete,  to  finish. 

V  sompay,  id. 
sonan  to  know. 

pocogondaay  sonan,  ignorance. 
sinonan  (s  :  in  :  onan) 

sogondaay  sinonan,  unskilfully. 
sondalo  soldier.     (Spanish  soldado.) 

sog  sondalo  moggondaay  abayo,  infan- 
try. 
sonnem 

sognigasoy  sonnem  nogayac   lover. 
sonsol  to  burn. 
sontoc  to  strike,  to  slash. 

pagsontoc  stroke  of  a  cutlass. 

V  sontoc,  to  stab,  to  lance. 
song  a  particle. 

song  neen,  to  thee. 
song  niyo,  to  you. 
son gag 

songag    domomog    nogombagol,    thick 
lips. 
songibu  thousand. 
songuca  thy. 
sool  down. 

socsool  fallen. 

V  sahol,  to  cheapen. 
soong  nose. 

batang  soong,  bridge  of  the  nose. 

imud  soong,  septum  of  the  nose. 

gegbad  soong,  interior  of  the  nose. 
soong  point  of  the  knife. 
soot  dance. 
sop 

dosop  also. 

piili  niusop,  again. 
sopagboot  Cf.  boot, 
sopang  fat,  fleshy. 

pocsopang  to  grow  plump. 

V  sopang,  fat. 

sopingi  (sapingi)  the  cheek. 

V  aping,  id.     Bontoc  Igorot :  Iping,  cheek 

near  the  temples. 
sopla  remedy. 

sogondaay  sopla,  irremediably. 

V  sompa,  to  give  medicine,  to  take  pre- 

cautions. 


sopoc  anger. 

pocsopoc  to  fly  into  a  rage, 
sopoceglopong  Cf.  lopong. 
sopoconongguiling  Cf.  guiling. 
sopocsama  Cf.  sama. 
sopogloguinaoa  Cf.  guinaoa. 
sopogopia  Cf.  pia. 
soquit 

soquit  nong  milugbas,   a  hole  bored 
from  side  to  side. 
sora  (sura)  fish. 

poctuba  soc  sora,  to  poison  fish. 

V  isda,  fish. 

sosombagay  quantity  given  and  received. 
soyon 

soyon  noc  sulut  binutong,  emblem. 
suansolom  in  the  morning. 
suayon 

sogondi  maimo  guilason  suayon,   in- 
divisible. 
suba  river.     Cf.  sapasapa. 

pagdipag  sac  suba  so  guset,  to  cross 
rivers  on  floats. 

V  soba,  river,  to  go  by  stream. 
subanon 

somoctoloan  noc  stibanon,  peasant. 
subo  Cf.  sobo. 
subungan  knife  haft. 
sucle  to  barter. 
sugo  Cf.  sogo. 
sugooa  Cf.  sogao. 
suguiton  Cf.  saguit. 
sulal  orchard. 

magbaal  lama  noc  sidal,  did  you  work 
in  the  orchard? 
sulat  (sulut)  to  write. 

suguiton  nia  nogompia  soc  sulat,  write 
well  thy  page. 

soyon  noc  sulut  binutong,  emblem. 
sogmogsosulat  writer,  clerk. 

V  solat,  to  write.   Bontoc  Igorot,  Ilocano: 

sulddak,  id. 
sulidat  spoon  of  wood  or  metal. 
suling  bamboo  flute. 
sulu  (solo)  light,  sunrise,  torch. 

V  solo,  a  torch.     Bontoc  Igorot:  silhi,  id. 
sulut  Cf.  sulat. 

sumalui  Cf.  saloy,  somaloy. 
sumibang 

sumibang  gondao,  sunrise. 
sumuda  to  eat. 

siimuda  na  gumanoc,  to  eat  the  egg. 
Sunday  a  bamboo  comb. 

Sunday  gaan,  a  fork. 
supla  to  blunt,  to  dull. 
supoc  to  tire  oneself. 
suquit 

pocsuquit  noc  paldon  sogmigbuis,  to 
enroll  in  a  census. 

pogbula  noc  pegotaran  noc  suquit,  cen- 
sus. 
sura  Cf.  sora. 
suuk  (suk)  jacket,  shirt. 

I    taab  rising  tide. 
poctaab  id. 
I       V  taob,  id. 


SUBANU  -  ENGL  ISH  VOCABULARY. 


213 


taap  to  suspect. 

di  motahap,  intrepid. 

V  tdhap,  to  suspect. 
taas  up. 

ditaas  up,  over. 
matas  tall. 
motaas 

gayo  nong  motaas,  any  large  timber. 

gotao  nong  motaas,  a  tall  robust  person. 

motaas  gopia,  tall,  elevated. 

gotao  nong  motaas  nog  booc,  hairy. 

V  taas,  up,  above. 
taassondao  midday,  noon. 
taba  to  be  fat. 

tabal  sermon. 
tabian  talker. 

V  tabi,  to  speak  much. 
tabing  the  hip. 

tabo  to  revolve. 

sogmogtabo  revolving. 
taboc  to  consent. 
tacho  stewpan.     (Spanish  tacho.) 
tadjau  a  jar  valued  at  5  piculs  of  rice. 
tagam  habit,  custom;  to  accustom. 

mitagam  (metagam,  motagam)  ha- 
bitually. 
sogondaay  mitagam,  unskilled. 
nog  metagam  nog  poglaat,   mischiev- 
ousness. 
tagana  to  elect. 

V  tagana,  id. 
tagek  juice. 
taginop  a  dream. 
tago  to  store. 

poctago,  id. 

V  tago,  to  guard,  to  store,  to  hide. 
taktuai  the  knee.     Cf.  leletek. 

talabi  a  drum  used  in  religious  ceremonies. 
talam  a  brass  serving  platter.     (Malay.) 
talao  fear. 

atalao  timid,  coward. 

sogondaay  atalao,  intrepidity. 
matalao  (motalao)  cowardly. 
ondi  matalao,  intrepid. 

V  talao,  fear. 
talawan  spear. 
tali  a  rope. 

tali    noguintolo,    3-stranded    esparto 
rope. 
taliaman  a  weapon. 

moni  aron  noc  taliaman,  a  weapon. 
talinga  theear;  handles  of  a  jar  or  jug. 

luang  talinga,  the  hole  in  the  ear. 

V  dalonggan,  the  ear. 
talip  the  bladder. 
talloma  Cf.  taliaman. 

bosi  maaron  noc  talloma,  javelin. 
talo  language. 

poctalo  to  speak. 
talon  wild. 

baboy  talon,  wild  boar. 
taluk  purple. 

gataluknen  (ga  :  taluk  :  nen)  a  large 
mass  of  purple. 
talun  betel  box. 
tama  where. 

tama    sogmogsostdat,    where    is    the 
clerk  ? 


tambugu  button.  Cf.  tumbaga. 
tambun  stack  of  straw.  (Malay.) 
tamiang  a  spirit  bird  which  determines  the 

best  site  for  a  house. 
taming  a  round  shield. 
tamisac  mud.     Cf.  basacan. 

V  pisac,  id. 
tamo 

sabot  tamo  uglonan  niyo,  answer  all  of 
you. 
tampalasan  naughty. 

V  tampalasan,  to  be  a  rogue,  immoral. 
tampoling  to  buffet,  to  slap. 

V  tarn  paling,  to  slap  with  the  back  of 

the  hand. 
tanud  thread. 

tao  Cf.  cutao,  potao,  tonaoan. 
tao  Cf.  gotao,  golitao. 

V  taoo,  person.     Bontoc  Igorot :  takao,  id. 
taod  to  respect. 

V  tahod,  to  honor. 
tapi  altar. 

tapis  skirt. 

tapis  empetek,  a  short  skirt,  kilt. 
moglong  tapis,  apron  worn  by  women. 

V  tapis,  an  outer  garment  of  women. 
tapolan  lazy,  idler,  vagabond. 

lee  nog  tapolan,  rogue,  swindler. 

V  tapolan,  id. 
tapus  to  end. 

atapusan  (a  :  tapus  :  an)  end. 
sogondaay  atapusan,  unlimited. 
atapusan  sog  benoiran,  hilltop. 

V  tapes,  to  finish,  to  conclude;  catapo- 

san,  end. 
tare 

poctare  to  put  balls  on. 
taron  good,  right. 

motaron  (mo  :  taron)  just,  lawful. 
songondi  motaron,  unlawful. 

V  tadong,  good,  right,  just. 
taron  I  do  not  know. 
tatung  tin. 

tauac  to  call,  to  summon. 

tauago  mo  guien,  call  thou  him. 

V  taoag,  to  call. 
tay  who. 

lay  minalung,  who  has  come  in? 
tee  needle. 
tee  excrement  of  a  child. 

V  tai,  excrement  in  general,  particularly 

human.     Bontoc  Igorot:  tde,  id. 
teguib  chisel. 
Vtigib,  id. 
telinting  backbone. 
telipusud  brother. 
teneb  wild  honey. 
tenite  to  salt  and  smoke  meat. 
tenga  half. 

tenggab  bamboo  flute  (longer  than  suling). 
tian  (tiyan,  puntian)  belly. 

macabagol  noc  tian,  pot  belly. 

tian  noc  pjisu,  calf  of  the  leg. 

V  tian,  belly.    Kolon:  tiya,  id.    Visayan: 

tian,  belly.  Magindano,  Ilocano, 
Tagalog,  Sanguir,  Ahtiago:  tian,  id. 
Pampangas:  atian,  id.  Wayapo: 
lihen,  id.     Morella:  tiaka,  id.     Ba- 


214 


THE   SUBANU. 


tian — continued. 

tumerah:  tiava,  id.  Wahai:  tiare, 
id.  Caimarian:  liamo,  id.  Lariko, 
Awaiya:  tia,  id.  Menado:  tijan,  id. 
Wayapo:  (then,  id.  Saparua:  ieho, 
id.  Marina,  Nggao,  New  Georgia, 
Treasury  Island:  tia,  id.  Maori, 
Tahiti,  Marquesas,  Mangareva: 
tia,  id. 

tibaan 

piran   nocpigaguanta   somala   noc   ti- 
baan, ignominy. 

tiboa  stomach. 

tibogok  a  bird  in  which  the  female  spirit 
dipuksaya  sometimes  materializes. 

tibooc  wholly,  entirely. 

V  tibooc,  id. 
ticas  to  defraud. 

ticas  maliondocon ,  pickpocket. 

V  ticas,  to  rob  meanly. 
tigom  to  gather,  to  accumulate. 

V  tigom,  id. 
tigomoamo  flattering. 

tigul  a  cigarette  wrapped  in  nipa  leaf. 
timata 

bilking  timala,  a  festival  for  the  infant 
dead  or  those  recently  dead. 
timba  good,  well. 
timod  to  unite. 

timod  noc  salapi,  to  hoard. 

V  tigom,  to  unite. 
timondoan  Cf.  tondo. 
timpa  betel  box. 
timpas  wry-mouthed. 
timuai  a  chief. 

tina  to  dye. 

poctina  noc  bolao,  to  dye  red. 

V  tina,  to  dye. 

tinabagen  a  grooved  spear  head. 

tinaguilo  stepchild. 

tinalagan  a  heavy  short  spear  with  short 

blade. 
tinalicala  (t  :  in  :  alicala). 
soctinalicala  to  chain. 

V  talicala,  a  chain. 
tinangonan 

sogtinangonan  noc  sa  lam  in  guinolnl 
antocos,  spectacles. 
tinayan  a  bridge. 
tinee  intestines,  bowel. 
tinhug  (tiungo)  nape,  back  of  the  neck. 
tinina  to  weave. 
tiningog  Cf.  tingog. 
tinongol  Cf.  tingol. 
tinugsog  a  young  pig  just  weaned. 
tingala  to  marvel. 

poctingala  to  astonish. 

V  tingala,  id. 
tingil  to  bear. 

pagtingil  to  carry. 
tingilan  spinning  wheel.     Cf.  tingol. 
tingog  talk. 

tiningog  id. 

V  tingog,  voice,  to  talk,  to  salute,  to  bray. 
tingol  to  spin. 

sogmogtingol  spinner. 

bonua  noc  poctingolan,  spinning  room. 


tingol — continued 

tinongol  (tin  :  on  :  gol). 

coloonan  somala  alandon  noc  tinongol, 
spun  fiber. 
tioan  (tiuan)  a  bee. 

nila  bonua  noc  tiuan,  beehive. 
tiuan  nog  lee,  drone. 
noquito  noc  tiuan,  pertaining  to  bees. 
pocongolan  nog  nila  noc  tioan,  queen 
cell. 

V  potiocan,  bee. 
tiroo  unhappy. 
titai  a  bridge. 
tiuan  Cf.  tioan. 
tiungo  Cf.  tinhug. 
tiyan  Cf.  tian. 
toay  glaucous. 
tobang  fresh. 

motobang  unsalted. 

V  tabang,  unsalted,  insipid. 
tobang  to  look.     Cf.  gatbang. 

poctobang  to  face. 

V  atobang,  to  become  visible,  to  look  at. 
tobe  Cf.  tabian. 

nocfnacabinggtiil  sa  gonipia  nog  buot 
poctobe,  detractor. 

V  tabi,  to  speak  much,  loquacious. 
tobig  Cf.  tubjg. 

tobo  (tubo)  to  sprout. 

catubo  (ca  :  tobo)  Ufe. 
poctobo  germination. 

poctobo  soc  gonu  soc  mga  lee,  to  have  a 

beard  just  showing. 
poctubo  sag  bombol  nog  manocmanoc, 
to  get  feathers. 
mintobo 

songoc  saa  mintobo  noc  salalis,  a  bunch 
of  flowers  on  one  stalk. 
tominobo  to  germinate. 
Visayan,   Matu:   tuhu,  to  grow.    Kayan: 
lubo.  id.  Is/lalay:  lunibuh,  id.  Mala- 
gasy: tomboh,  id.  Samoan-.tupu,  id. 
tobod  a  .spring. 

tondofig  noc  tobod,  spring,  fountain. 
bonua  nocolonan  nocpoc  tobora,  spring. 

V  tobod,  to  spring  from,  to  gush. 
tobon 

libong  bo  bacalan  noc  tobon  nog  dina- 
mog  bata,  a  barren  female. 
toboro  Cf.  tobod. 

tobos  (tubus)  complete,  perfect,  to  finish. 
Cf.  tapus. 
poctobosan  achievable. 

V  tapos,  to  complete. 
toclop  to  nail. 

tocsocan  a  case  for  buttons  and  thread. 

V  tohogan,  id. 
togaling  Cf.  tugaling. 
togaya  Cf.  tugaya. 
togot  to  permit. 

socaltogot  susceptible  of  exemption, 
togotan 

sogsomacay  nogale  togotan  noc  ponoan, 
stowaway. 

V  togot,  to  grant  permission. 
togubung  rat. 


SUBANU-ENGLISH  VOCABULARY. 


215 


toiac  leaning. 

sogmitoiac  inclination  to  one  side. 
tolin  gain. 

poctolin  to  acquire. 

poggatad  poctolin  nog  bangot,  to  get  a 
beard. 
tolipaon 

soctolipaon  meaon,  dwarfish. 
tolisan  rascal. 

tolisan  tugaling,  rogue. 

V  tampalasan,  rogue,  rascal. 
tolo  three. 

tali  noguintolo,  3-stranded  rope. 
tolopulu  thirty. 

V  tolo,  three.     Bontoc  Igorot:  tolo,  id. 
tolo  (tolu)  to  drop,  to  drip. 

poctolo  nongogatop,  to  rain. 

V  tolo,  a  drop  of  any  hquid. 
tolod  to  impel,  to  push. 

V  tolod,  id.     Bontoc  Igorot:  itolUdko,  id. 
tolog  sleep. 

pogtolog  to  go  to  sleep. 

V  tolog,  id. 
tolong  to  burn. 
torn  dark. 

mitom  black. 

biag  nog  mitom,  a  black  slave. 
getomnen  (ge  :  torn  :  nen)  blackness 
of  night. 
Vitom,  maitom,  black. 
torn  a  why? 

toma  a  logmo  song  neen,  why  blamest 
thou  him? 
toman  Cf.  tuman. 
tomanan  to  improve. 
tominobo  Cf.  tobo. 
tonaoan  (t  :  on  :  ao  :  an) 

balay  noc  poctonaoan  noc  potao,  iron- 
works. 

V  tonao,  to  smelt  metals. 
tondo  to  educate. 

timondoan  (t  :  im  :  ondo  :  an)  dis- 
ciple. 

V  todio,  to  instruct,  to  teach. 
tondo  finger. 

salabuk  tondo,  first  finger. 
datu  tondo,  second  finger. 
bobonayan  noc  tondo,  space  between 
the  knuckles. 
bogotondo  knuckle. 

V  todlo,  torlo,  finger,  toe. 
tondong  (tundong)  to  pertain. 

tondong   noc   tubig,   pertaining   to   a 

river. 
tondong  noc  tobod,  a  spring,  fountain. 
tondong  song  ang  manoc,  gallinaceous. 
soctondong  gabo  nog  mogonao,  wintry. 
soctondong  nog  dalan,  itinerary. 
mitondong  (metondong) 
mitondong  no  gotao,  human. 
mitondong  nog  bata,  childish,  juvenile. 
socmitondong  nog  diuata,  idolatrous. 
sogmetondong  sogmogdadao,  thievish. 
gaom    noc    motondong    so    gonauna, 

science  of  ideas. 

V  tongod,  to  pertain. 


tonob 

gaan  noc  potocon  boogon  noc  tonob  so- 
mala  alandon  nong  mobogbog,  cakes. 
tonogbata  Cf.  bata. 

pocpatay  bisan  tonogbata  nong  mica, 
infanticide. 
tontal  to  marry. 

poctontal  marriage. 
tontol  conversation 

tontol  noc  pigonaona  moc  nga  gotao, 

fable. 
tontoltontol  balos  nog  mibatog  sag  Ion- 
sod,  rumor,  gossip. 
poctontol  to  converse. 
soctontol  detractor. 
tontong  to  burn. 

poctontong  id. 
tong  why? 

long  na  malipay,  why  are  ye  merry? 
tong  harm. 

pimoctong  to  molest. 
pomoctong  hostile. 
tongalang  basket. 

lulu  tongalang,  a  large  basket  for  crop 
storage. 
Bontoc  Igorot:  dlang,  granary. 
tongdong  to  face. 
tongdug 

tongdug  panga,  a  half-grown  monkey. 
tongos  to  wrap  up. 
tonggab  to  drink. 

V  tongab,  id. 
too  to  believe. 

V  too, id. 

toon  (tuun)  year,  time,  a  two-crop  season, 
crop  and  harvest. 
toon  no  pogdope,  rainy,  showery. 
Bontoc  Igorot:  taaowin,  year. 
toon  to  teach. 

mutuon  na  noc  putuonan,  did  you 
study  the  lesson? 
pictoonan  (pic  :  toon  :  an)  disciple. 
guiscuelaan  noc  poctoonan,  school. 

V  toon,  to  teach. 
toos  signal. 
topoc  to  unite. 
torong  just. 

catorongan  (ca  :  torong  :  an)  justice. 
bal  nogondi  socal  so  catorongan,  in- 
justice. 

V  tadong,  catadongan,  justice. 
tuan  master,  sir. 

poctuan  noc  tubig,  spring. 
tuba  a  shrub. 

poctuba  soc  sora,  to  poison  fish. 

V  toba,  a  shrub  whose  fruit  is  used  to 

poison  fish. 
tubig  (tobig)  water. 

pocpunu  noc  tubig,  to  fill  with  water. 

soc  tobig,  rising  tide. 

tugaya  noc  pobianan  noc  tubig,  water 

conduit. 
tondong  noc  tubig,  pertaining  to  a  river. 
poctuan  noc  tubig,  a  spring. 
poglines  somala  alandon  sog  tubig,  to 

dissolve. 
pocsicay  noc  tubig,  J.o  sprinkle  water. 


216 


THE    SUBANU. 


tubig — continued. 

baa  noc  tubig,  overflow  of  rivers. 
luhig  nog  dupe,  rainwater. 
miglanao  ic  tubig,  lake. 
poctubig  to  fill  with  water. 
bonoa  noc  tubigan,  puddle. 

V  tobig,  water  in  general. 
tubo  Cf.  tobo. 

tubus  Cf.  tobos. 

tugaling  (togaling)  very,  a  sign  of  the  su- 
perlative. 
malat  tugaling,  evil  doer. 
maligos  ba  tugaling,  is  he  worse. 
nialagos  tugaling,  he  is  worse. 
bolo  tugaling,  ferocity. 
tolisan  tugaling,  rogue. 
pocabolo  tugaling,  inhumanly. 
sogpacalaat  tugaling,  iniquitously. 
pacanapo  tugaling,  evenness. 
minit  togaling,  very  warm. 
tugaya  (togaya)  a  gutter,  spout;  to  make  a 
canal. 
tugaya  noc  pobianan  noc  tubig,  water 
conduit. 
tugbungan 

donggoan  tugbungan,  anchorage. 
tugol  to  strengthen. 
tulaan  bone. 
tulag  to  disjoin. 
tulakh  Adam's  apple. 
tuman  (toman)  to  obey,  to  comply. 
toman,  a  filler. 
moctuman  amo  poc,  put  yourselves  in 

a  row. 
poctoman  noc  atandanan,  to  satisfy,  to 
comply  with  what  is  due. 
socmectuman,  full. 

V  toman,  to  comply;  complete,  perfect. 
tumbaga  copper.     Cf.  tambugu. 

V  tombaga,  id. 
tundaan  a  small  boat. 
tundong  Cf.  tondong. 
tungdong  reason,  motive. 

V  tongod,  id. 


tungkaling  a  bell  to  frighten  birds  away 

from  crops. 
turung  hat,  cap. 

tutusan  a  cigarette  wrapped  in  paper. 
tuyo  intention. 

V  toyo,  id. 

tuyo  to  weary,  to  molest,  to  vex. 

V  toyo,  to  inconvenience,  to  annoy. 

ubi  a  tuber  edible  when  cooked. 

V  obi,  id. 
uglonan  Cf.  lonan. 
ulatay  wait. 

pogulatay  mo,  wait. 

V  holat,  to  wait. 
ulihan  pulpit. 

V  oali,  to  preach;  oalihan,  pulpit. 
ulimo 

ulimo  caya,  return  that  to. 

nana  ec  pogulimo,  when  wilt  thou  go? 

V  oli,  to  restore. 
ulipun  Cf.  gulipun. 
umpet  Cf.  pet. 
upat  four. 

u  ram  an  to  change. 

sogondi  maimo  uraman,  immutable. 
utung  (gutung)  monkey. 

viste  clothing.     (Spanish  veste.) 

walu  eight. 

walupulu  eighty. 

V  oalo,  eight.     Bontoc  Igorot:  walo,  id. 

ya  thou. 

morito  ya  soc  convento,  go  thou  to  the 

convent. 
monoog  ya,  come  thou  down. 

V  ya,  id. 
yamo  you. 

yaua  (yawa)  devil. 

V  yaoa,  id.     Tagolog:  yaua,  id. 
yaung  a  cup. 

yen  he. 


ENGLISH-SUBANU  VOCABULARY. 


abandon 
abbess 
abdicate 
ability 

abjure 

able 

abnegation 

abolish 
abominable 
abuse 
acacia 
accede 
accessible 
accord 
accumulate 
accustom 
achievable 
acquire 
admit 
to  the  house 


adorn 

adze 

adzing  guinocsip 

affectionately  gayac. 


belong,  pasagdan. 

gosog  nog  binocot. 

pinilian. 

pocolomo  balon  somala  alan- 

don. 
pacpangirongo    nong    mo- 

tood. 
maimo,  molomo,  socal-,  soc- 

socal-. 
penongonan    sogogolingong 

nog  buot. 
socalan  igbutasan. 
socalpoglogomutan . 
palalabe. 

gayo  nog  doguian. 
gangay,  goyon. 
pogood. 
pegoyonan. 

pongon,  tigom,  lompoc. 
mibotasan,  tagam. 
poctobosan. 
poctolin. 
panilong. 

gomalin. 


dayandayan, sangay. 
bencong. 


afternoon 

again 

against 

aged 

agree 

ah 

aid 

alas 

alienable 

all 

alligator 

altar 

alter 

also 

always 

amazement 

anchorage 

and 

anger 

animal 

ankle 

answer 

ant 

appetite 

appoint 

apron 

arable 

architect 

areca  nut 


ialabong,     ginenga     minek 

gondao. 
pull  musop. 
bono, 
magulang. 

gangay,  sabot,  goyon. 
bale, 
labanan. 
aba,  bale. 

socsocalbogayan  nog  leen. 
lonan,  lamnen. 
bangitao,  boaya. 
binabalay,  bukar,  tapi. 
paglogalin,  pocpeen. 
dosop. 
gusay. 
pocolaen  sa  gunagona,  coen- 

doc. 
donggoan  tugbungan. 
bo,  bu. 
sopoc. 
mananap. 
bogogu. 

sabot,  posobaton,  sombag. 
pila. 

ayac,  guibog. 
ngalan. 

moglong  tapis, 
lopa  nogompia  balan,  napo. 
sogmigbaal  nog  balay. 
gibas,  maen. 


argue 
arm 

upper  arm 
armlet 
armor 
armpit 
around 
arrival 
arrogant 
arrogantly 
arrow 
artery 
ascertain 
ashes 
ask 
assist 
astonish 
asylum 
attach 
attentive 
aunt 
axe 

baby 

bachelor 

back 

backbone 

bad 

weather 
bagasse 
bait 
bald 
ball 

banana 
bandage 
banner 
baptize 
bark 
barker 
barking 
barracks 
barrel 
barren 
barter 
basket 

fishbasket 
bat 
bathe 
battle 
bay 
be 

beam 
bear 
bearable 
beard 
beat 

beautiful 
because 


sindil. 
bingcon 

mageleabed. 
linggit. 
genbet. 
gilek. 
libot. 

carongo,  pagdatong. 
baga. 
pocobaga. 
iipu. 
gugat. 
pocposoon. 
gabo. 
saac. 

labanan,  gabang. 
libaliba,  poctingala. 
panilong,  domangop. 
matogos. 

pocaoid,  pocpongong. 
gina,  ina. 
gwasay. 

batabata. 
golitao. 
locud,  logud. 
telinting. 
laat,  malaat. 

gonos  nong  marisa. 
gopa. 
gumpan. 
gopao. 
sipa. 
saguing. 
baling, 
bandela. 
bondyag. 
gosig. 

socmoggosig  maloong. 
sopoggosig. 
locao. 
pocquipos. 

tobon  nog  dinamog  bata. 
sucle. 
bobaan,   gantang,   gantang 

bnhisan,  lulu  tongalang. 

pitangan. 
laknit,  batiti. 
ligo. 

lelenaan. 
linok,  logoc. 
dine,  doon. 
gayo  nong  motaas. 
antosan,  gantoson. 
sogmolomo  antosan. 
gumi,  gonu,  bangot. 
pagbontol,  bonal. 
bais,  embais,  malongas. 
sabab. 

217 


218 


THE   SUBANU. 


becloud 

bed 

bee 

beehive 

beer 

beginning 

behold 

believe 

bell 

belt 
belly 
below 
bend 
beneath 
benefit 
betel  box 
chewing 

bewitch 

bird 

bit 

bitter 

bitterness 

black 

blacksmith 

bladder 

blame 

blanket 

blaze 

bleach 

blear-eyed 

block 

blood 

blood  money 

blood  vessel 

blow  n 

blow  V 

blue 

blueness 

blunt 

boar 

wild  boar 
boat 
body 
boiling 
bone 
bottle 
bow 
bowels 
bowl 

bowstring 
box 

betel  box 

tobacco  box 
boy 

brace  the  feet 
brain 
branch 
brave 
breast 
breastbone 
breath 
breeches 
bridge 

of  the  nose 
bristly 


pogdolan. 

poyoan. 

niguan,  tioan,  boligan. 

nila  bonoa  noc  tiuan. 

gasi,  pangasi. 

pegotaran. 

dien  iposay. 

too. 

basting,  linganay,  tungka- 

ling. 
bakes  panit,  baling, 
tian,  puntian. 
socsilong. 
moctoo. 
perealon. 

calongas,  gipianan. 
talun,  timpa. 

bunga,  buj'o,  laget,  mam- 

aen,  gibas,  maen. 
mobabaan. 
manoc. 

sangol  sog  baba,  biyanan. 
pet,  umpet. 
gapetnen. 
mitom,  getomnen. 
panday  potao. 
talip. 
logmo. 
gumut. 
goclac,  liga. 
pocpoti. 
motaon. 
somagang. 
dogo. 
bangon. 
gugat. 
litobong. 
gonos. 
bilu,  gasol. 
gabilunen. 
sansang,  supla. 
baboy. 

baboy  talon,  butaal. 
sacay,  tundaan. 
lauas. 

socmocsubo. 
tulaan. 
lelenaan. 
pana. 
tinee. 
palaksan. 
giget. 
caban. 

talun,  timpa. 

batangan  laget. 
boto-micaon,  bogutao. 
pocponicol,  sicol. 
gutek. 

panga,  pakanen. 
bole,  macabolo,  pintas. 
gogdob,  edob,  dubdub. 
gibusibus. 
guinaoa. 
sangyawa. 
tinayan,  titai. 

batang  soong. 
nongmotong. 


brook  sapasapa. 

brother  patod,  telipusud,  gilugu. 

brother-in-law  bate. 

brow  gangas. 

bruise  locpog,  ocdoc. 

bud  bone,  buat,  pegotaran. 

buffet  doctoc,  tampoling. 

builder  sogmigbaal  nog  balay. 

building  balay,  beta. 

bunch  caloonan. 

burn  sonsol,  tolong,  tontong. 

burning  baga  tondong  noc  abolo  no 

gapoy. 
bury  lobimg,  poclubung,  olungo- 

ban. 
button  tambugu. 

buy  saloy. 

by-and-by  soganagana. 

cacao  aao,  aaoan. 

cackle  pogone. 

cage  gulungan. 

cake  boogon. 

calf  tian  noc  pusu. 

call  tauac,  batog. 

calumny  ponbaal,  poglibac. 

canal  tugaya. 

candle  lansuk. 

cane  llayan. 

cannon  lotang  nog  daan,  lantaka. 

to  fire  boi. 

canoe  galiyan. 

cap  popia,  tuning. 

carabao  galabao. 

cargo  sogod. 

carpenter  panday. 

carriage  pocoatud,  pocogoit. 

carrier  sogmogoit,  sogmogatod. 

carry  goit,  poquit,  socnaquit.atud , 

baba,  dala,  tingil,  bolig. 
cart  pogoot. 

cassava  camote  cahoj'. 

cat  guilos,  geding,  kuting,  bir- 

ing,  gigus. 
wildcat  lubing. 

cause  alaik  punanen,  alaik  sabab. 

census  pocsuquit  noc  paldon  sog- 

migbuis. 
chain  pogbaat,    poquicot,    tinali- 

cala. 
chair  guicoran. 

change  posocliyan,  uraman. 

chastity  nada. 

cheapen  pacponoog  sog  laga. 

cheat  baloson. 

cheek  sapingi,  sopingi,  molo. 

chest  gogdob,  edob,  dubdub;  gc- 

deb; caban. 
chew  mama. 

chick  posui. 

chicken  gitit. 

chief  gosog,   gosog    nog    lonoon, 

timuai,    pammgo,    gare, 

datu,  begelal,  poon,  sali- 

ling,  masalag^au,  lajagu- 

num. 
child  bata. 


ENGUSH-SUBANU   VOCABUI.ARY. 


219 


childbirth 

gululu,  matansa,  gosina. 

chimney 

bengawan  nog  gobal. 

chin 

selang. 

chisel 

teguib. 

chocolate  pot 

batirol. 

choose 

pili. 

church 

sinbaan. 

cigarette 

gasa,  lakas,  sigupan,  tigul, 

tutusan. 

clerk 

sogmogsosulat. 

clever 

motoo. 

climb 

pogdeec,  pogontod. 

cloak 

capote;  poclabon. 

close 

pono. 

cloth 

genbet,  kinopatan. 

clothing 

ponopoton,     poloapomopo- 

ton,  viste;  baag,  gantiu. 

gawal,      gawes,     gumut, 

legdey,     musalabungkas. 

porot,  salwal,  sangyawa. 

suuk,  tapis,  apote. 

cloud 

dolan. 

coals 

baga. 

dead  coals 

musing. 

coarse 

moreipol. 

coat 

apote. 

cock 

limansud. 

cockpit 

bonua  nocpogbalidyaan  no- 

ngog  manoc. 

coconut 

niug. 

grove 

niugao. 

milk 

tubig  nong  niug. 

shell 

load. 

coin 

salapi. 

cold 

mogonao;  sipoon. 

collar 

gasintos. 

comb 

Sunday. 

come 

minatung,  mori. 

come  down 

monoog. 

comfort 

senombagan,  milipay. 

coming 

carongo,  pagdatong. 

command 

pogboot,  pocsogo,  poggare. 

commander 

socmocsogo. 

commanding 

sogmogboot. 

commandment    sogo. 

communion 

paccalauat. 

compact 

dacsoc,  libon,  maligon. 

complete 

ontoran,    octuban,    ponno. 

sompoyan,  tobos. 

comprehend 

sabot. 

comply 

tuman. 

conduct,  good 

pia,  gompia. 

conductor 

sogmogatod,  sogmogoit. 

conduit 

tugaya. 

confess 

paccalauat,  compinsal. 

conflagration 

dinoksulan. 

congratulate 

tugaling  sac  sala  gotao  ton- 

dong  sa  gompia  noc  palad 

sama  gotao. 

consent 

taboc. 

contain 

gola. 

conversation 

tontol. 

cook 

loto. 

copper 

tumbaga. 

corrupt 

malat  tugaling. 

cottage 

locao  sog  beninalan. 

count 

guisip. 

counting 

paguisip,  pagusay. 

country 

bukid,  lonsod. 

courage 

cabolo  so  posong. 

courageous 

bolo,  macabolo. 

cousin 

gonopo. 

cover 

labon. 

cow 

sapi. 

coward 

atalao. 

cowardly 

motalao. 

cradle 

puyuwan. 

creeper 

bolagan  nog  bolaan. 

cripple 

lolid,  pitong. 

crocodile 

bangitao,  boaya. 

crooked 

molio. 

cross 

pagdipag. 

crow 

quak,  guak;  pogone. 

crowd 

picpongonnan  nonga  gotao, 

loonan. 

crown 

bolibod;  porongporong. 

crying 

pocsogao. 

cup 

basu,  sawan,  yaung. 

cure 

pocbolong;  porang,  tenite. 

curved 

molio. 

custom 

batad,  batasan,  gaui,  tagam. 

cut 

gabasan,  potol. 

cutlass 

penoto. 

dainties 

guibogan. 

damage 

poglaat. 

dance 

soot,   sabay;  anahau,   sali- 

dingan. 

daughter 

bata. 

dawn 

diselum,  poti  dalag. 

day 

gondao,  gobii. 

day  after  to-morrow    salan  gondao. 

daytime 

gondao. 

death 

amatayon,  pocamatay,  pog- 

patayon. 

debilitate 

pocgangay     noc     capintas 

abolo  socog. 

deceit 

say op. 

declivity 

maranaya. 

decoction 

moloto. 

deep 

medelem. 

deer 

bilibili,  osa. 

defamation 

pogangay  nog  rongog,  poc- 

peed. 

defamer 

sogmaglaat    bo    mogangay 

nog  dongog. 

defection 

boclag  ondi  somogot,  dala. 

defend 

gabang,  inobangan. 

defense 

sogicabang. 

defensive 

sogicagabaug. 

deference 

goyon. 

deficit 

gongean,  pagcorala. 

define 

gasoy,  sayoron,  sogo. 

defraud 

dao,  ticas,  limbong. 

deglutition 

goglon,  orol. 

dejected 

pagoquion. 

delay 

alanganan,  payat. 

deluded 

soglinunbogan  sogpiglologo- 

sogan. 

delusive 

sogondaay  tundongan^noc 

pacanaoron,  sogmicalim- 

bong. 

depressed 

pocpanimolang. 

desire 

bout. 

220 


THE    SUBANU. 


destroy 

morala. 

easy 

malorao,    molomo,    sogon- 

detest 

gomot. 

daay  abilingan. 

detractor 

nocmacabingguil  sa  gompia 

eat 

cana,    gaan,    sumuda,    ma- 

nog  buot  poctobe,  poquit 

namu,  manunsuma. 

soctontol. 

ebullition 

pocsobo. 

devil 

yaua. 

educate 

baton,  lomo,  tondo. 

die 

matay,  patay. 

efficiency 

socpogbaal. 

different 

laen. 

egg 

bulinga,  gumanoc. 

difficult 

biling,  malogou. 

eight 

walu. 

difficulty 

abilingan,  lisod. 

eighty 

walupulu. 

digestion 

poglines  sog  quinaan. 

elbow 

siyu. 

dilapidator 

maliolaon. 

elder 

mogulang. 

diligent 

matogos. 

elect 

pili,  tagana. 

dine 

cana. 

elegance 

dugnayan  ig  lanas  no  gotao 

disagreement  gondi  gangay.gondimaaron. 

mapiaiguindog. 

discouragement     paubos  nog  buot. 

elevated 

maal,  motaas  gopia. 

disciple 

pictoonan,  timondoan. 

eleven 

sapulu  bo  sala. 

disjoin 

gogbag,  tulag. 

eliminate 

di  poggolat  sog  bisan  alan- 

disorderly 

gobot. 

don. 

dispersion 

pocboclag,  poclagoy. 

emanate 

buat,  gatad. 

displeasing 

pocobaga. 

embarrass 

libang,  casamoc. 

displeasure 

malaat  nog  boot,  gomot. 

embark 

pocosacay. 

dissemble 

poclabon  sac  guionaona. 

embellish 

alongas,  dayandayan,  san- 

disseminate 

sitguag. 

gay. 

dissent 

pingondian. 

emblem 

laraban  nga  ologan  somala 

dissenter 

socsomocal  so  nga  gosod. 

alandon,  soyon  noc  sulut 

dissertation 

pocsindilsindil. 

binutong. 

dissimilar 

di  maaron,  dilo  mopong. 

embroidery 

lankep. 

dissolve 

lines. 

enchanted 

gondeemaqui  nongog,  gonlo 

distinguish 

peinan. 

gotao  nog  boangboang. 

distinguishable     socalpeinan. 

enchanter 

asoang,  balbal. 

distract 

lingalinga. 

encounter 

baangan. 

distribute 

pocguilas. 

end 

atapusan;  tapus. 

disturb 

magalin. 

endure 

antosan,  gantoson. 

divide 

boocon,  potol,  lombos. 

enemy 

banta,  bono. 

divinity 

poccadiuata. 

enervate 

pocgangay     noc     capintas 

divorce 

pocboclag    soc    gotao    nga 

abolo  socog. 

soay. 

enjoy 

agom. 

dog 

guito,  ito,  gayam. 

enjoyment 

pocagagom,  milipay. 

door 

langaan. 

enroll 

pocsuquit  noc  paldon,  pog- 

doorway 

bawang  ec  daan. 

buta. 

down 

baba,  sool,  nooc. 

enter 

solot. 

come  down 

monoog. 

entirely 

tibooc. 

go  down 

ponooc,  socsilong. 

ephemeral 

socmopayat  soc  sala  ondao. 

dream 

taginop. 

equal 

pares,  sama. 

drink 

inom,     guinom,     gunimon, 

equalizer 

somoglopong,  somogsama. 

minoma,  ocsop,  tonggab. 

estimate 

pacpalaga  somala  alandon. 

drip 

tolo. 

evening 

polupungobii. 

drone 

tiuan  nog  lee. 

evenness 

pacanapo  tugaling. 

drop 

tolo. 

event 

gabo. 

drum 

gandang,  talabi. 

every 

lonan. 

drunken 

poccabolong. 

everything 

lamnen. 

drunkenness 

migbobolong. 

evil 

sayop. 

dry 

inangkag. 

evildoer 

mipono    noc    sayop,    sala. 

dull 

sansang,  supla. 

malat  tugaling. 

duty 

atodanan. 

exact 

lopong. 

dwarf 

meaon. 

exactly 

impit. 

dwell 

congol. 

excrement 

tee,  malomo. 

dwelling 

picongolan. 

excuse 

balibad. 

dye 

panglamugan,    pongompig, 

executable 

socsocalbaalan. 

tina. 

exhort 

sambag. 

explain 

sayoron. 

ear 

talinga. 

external 

sa  gua. 

earring 

gantingganting. 

extinguish 

pocpalon. 

earth 

lopa,  salau. 

eye 

mata. 

earthquake 

linug. 

humor 

mota. 

ease 

abotang. 

pupil 

ginotao. 

ENGLISH-SUBANU   VOCABULARY. 


221 


eyebrow 

eyelash 

eyelid 

fable 
face 

facilitate 

faction 

factious 

factor 

factory 
faculty 
fair  weather 
fall 

fallacy 
false  witness 
falsifier 

fame 

fan 

far 

farm 

farmer 

fast 

fasting 

fat 

father 

father-in-law 

fathom 


gilay. 

pileka. 

pilaten. 

tontol. 

molo;  gatbang,  poctobang, 

tongdong. 
nog   abilingan   nog   micao- 

lang,  pogangay. 
dapig. 

gobot,  somocol,  malalison. 
gotao    pimonan,    pisaligan, 

pocsaloy,  nocpogbalidya. 
beta. 

gaom  socpogbaal. 
linao. 
labo,  pagobos,  socosol,  bosa- 

can,  lolid. 
bales,  lingbon,  nogmalat. 
pombaal. 
songmogmaomao    somala 

alandon. 
bantug. 
gocabgocab. 
malayo. 
bukid. 

nogmigbaal  sog  lopa. 
puasa. 
pocpuasa. 

malombo,  sopang,  taba. 
gama. 

ponongangan. 
kumpau,  depa. 


three  fathoms     sinantan. 
fault  finding    libac. 
fear  ondoc,  gondoc,  talao. 

feasible  malomo  balon,  socsocalba- 

lon. 
feast  buklug. 

feather  bombol. 

feeble  malobay. 

fellow  sama. 

fence  galad. 

ferocious  bolo,  pintas. 

ferocity  bolo  tugaling. 

festival  buklug. 

fever  panas. 

feverish  panas  minit. 

field  bukid,  bonoa  nog  napo. 

cleared  for  tilth     binalan. 

cultivated  begyaan. 


paddy  field 
fierce 
fight 
fifty 
fill 
filler 
find 
fine 
finger 

index  finger 

second 

third 

little 
fingernail 
finish 


binal. 
pintas. 
lalis. 

limapulu. 
pono,  loop, 
socpocoloon  mepono. 
baangan. 
bangon. 
tondo,  gemet,  goyamet. 

salabuk  tondo,  palamanis. 

datu  tondo. 

manisan. 

koingai. 
kanuku. 
octoban,  tobos,  ponno,  som- 

poyan. 


fire  n 

fire  V 

firelight 

fire  making 

fireplace 

firewood 

first 

fish 

fishbasket 

fisherman 

fish  fence 


fishnet 

five 

flame 

flank 

flattering 

fledged 

fleshy 

flexible 

float  n 

float  V 

flood 

floor 

flour 

flower 

fluent 

flute 

flux 

fly 

follow 

following 

food 

fool 

foolish 

foot 
sole 
instep 
to  brace 

footprint 

forehead 

forest 

forge 

fork 

form 

fortune 

forty 

fountain 

four 

fowl 

fresh 

freshet 

friend 

fright 

frog 

fruit 

full 

funeral 

fur 


gapoy,  dinoksulan. 

boi,  lotang. 

liga,  goclac. 

pulas. 

gabo  pagbaloganan,  buanan 

ginulai. 

mina,  bekna. 

sera,  esda,  suda. 

pitangan. 

managat,  polomongwit. 

galad  nog  llayan  lanas  soc- 
pogboloy  noc  sura  noo 
tubigan. 

giyud,  pasawit. 

lima. 

liga. 

guilid. 

poraigon,  tigomoamo. 

poctubo  sog  bombol  nog 
manocmanoc. 

gotao  gombagol  noc  sopingi 
sopang. 

pomagon. 

aloonan  nog  gayoonan. 

lotao. 

baa. 

saleg. 

bagas  mais. 

bulac. 

poctolo. 

suling,  tenggab. 

sogdogo. 

langau,  boligan,  calontinay. 
pogdonot. 
gelet. 

gaan,  balon. 

colang  sog  boot,  gongog, 
bobo. 

boangboang. 
gocsud,  pocsud,  botis. 
palapa. 

dibaban  noc  palapa. 
sicol,  pocponicol. 
binaya. 
gangas. 
bui. 

pandayan. 
Sunday  gaan. 
pogbaal,    pogbogay,    pogli- 

quimo,  pocpongong. 
palad. 

patpulu,  upatpulu. 
tobod. 
pat,  upat. 
manoc. 
tobang. 
baa  noc  tubig. 
bila. 
bayad. 
bocbaac. 
bunga. 
socmectuman,  songmipono, 

bontal. 
buklug  pimala,  timala,  po- 

nolud,  puluntu,  sogao. 
bombol. 


222 


THE   SUBANU. 


gain  n  polos,  tolin. 

gain  V  daag. 

gale  gonos  nong  marisa. 

gallantly  baya  gopia. 

gallantry  dugnayan  ig  lanas  no  gotao 

mapiaiguindog. 

garden  pimolaen. 

garnish  sapauan. 

gateway  bunguan. 

gather  lompoc,  pongon,  tigom. 

generating  sogmoglioat. 

generative  sogdoon  ig  gaom  nog  pogli- 

oat. 

generously  maloot. 

germ  bone,  buat,  pegotaran, 

germinate  tominobo. 

germination  poctobo. 

gift  bogay. 

ginger  loya. 

girdle  baling,  bakes. 

girl  dalaga. 

giver  malibogayon,  mayac. 

glad  milipay. 

gland  gonda. 

glaucous  toay,  manguidaap. 

glebe  soc  lupa  noctibogol  guinale, 

semicoat  nog  daro. 

globular  lingin. 

go  minolo,  morito. 
go  down  socsilong. 

go  up  monoog. 

goat  anding,  bilibili. 

god  diuata;  bichara. 

goitre  buyun. 

gold  bulawan. 

gong  kulintangan;  gagun. 

good  pia,  bais,  malongas,  pinuli, 

taron. 

gossip  tontoltontol  balos. 

govern  gauid,  pocboot. 

governor  magagauid,    magboot,    po- 

noan,  gobednarol. 

grain  putok. 

granary  lulu  tongalang. 

grandfather  gapo  nog  lee. 

grandmother  gapo  nog  libon. 

grasp  acid. 

grass  padang,  kogon. 

grave  alobungan. 

gray  gabu,  gobol. 

gray  hair  mogobol,  kagobolnen. 

great  salag,  gasalagnen,  bagol. 
great-grandfather    gama  nog  gapo. 

greatly  tugaling. 

greatness  gasalagnen. 

green  lunau,    galunaunen,    molu- 

nau;  mangud. 

ground  salau. 

guess  atoc. 

guitar  sigitan,  kutapi. 

gulf  linok,  logoc. 

gun  sinapang. 

gunpowder  malilang. 

gutter  tugaya. 


habit 
habitable 


tagam,  gaui,  botasan. 
song  mopia  pocongolan. 


habitation 

picongolan. 

habitually 

mitagam. 

haft 

subungan. 

hair 

booc,  bombol,  kulagu. 

false  hair 

caloonan  nog  booc,  boo- 

can,  pasobong. 

hairy 

gotao  nong  motaas  nog  booc, 

boocan. 

half 

gineng,  ginenga,  tenga. 

hamlet 

gampu  nog  balay,  gampu 

nog  bawang. 

hammock 

puyuwan. 

hand 

gomog. 

palm 

palad. 

back 

dibabau  palad. 

lines  of  palm    kulis. 

left 

dig  mebang. 

right 

dig  liut. 

handkerchief 

panggu. 

hank 

palos. 

happiness 

alipayan,  palad. 

happy 

lipay,  liag. 

hard 

matugas. 

harm 

tong. 

hat 

popia,  turung. 

hatred 

malaat  nog  boot,  gomot. 

have 

doon. 

he 

guien,  geyen,  iin,  yen. 

head 

golo. 

nod 

polog  sa  golo  debaloy  bo 

debaloy. 

heal 

bolong. 

hear 

rongog,  bonug. 

heart 

posong. 

hearth 

buanan,  gabo  pagbaloganan. 

heat 

init,  sasac. 

heathen 

pacano. 

heel 

seel,  bacoao. 

help 

gabang,  labanan. 

hemorrhage 

sogdogo. 

hemp 

lanut. 

hen 

dulungan. 

wild  hen 

daluan  libuyu. 

here 

deni. 

heritage 

socmicpongon. 

hermit  crab 

gumang. 

hiccup 

soggo,  gonto,  boctasan. 

hide  V 

godlod. 

hill 

bulud. 

hillock 

buludbulud,  bod. 

hilltop 

atapusan.sog^benoiran. 

hip 

tabing. 

hither 

deni. 

hoard 

timod  noc  salapi,  oglod 

hoe 

sarol. 

hold 

pongong. 

hole 

luang,  soquit. 

honey 

teneb. 

hope 

lolat. 

hornbill 

kalau. 

horse 

abayo,  guda. 

hostile 

pomoctong. 

hot 

malalas,  init. 

house 

balay. 

birth  house      gosina. 

spirit  house      maligai. 

to  admit  tc 

panilong. 

ENGUSH-SUBANU   VOCABULARY. 


223 


pogosig  no  quito'nocpogbou 

tolon. 
mitondong  no  gotao,  baya 

no  gotao. 
palobaya. 
pahubus. 
magatus. 
pora. 
din. 


howling 

human 

humbly 

humility 

hundred 

hunger 

hunt 

hunting  spirits    manubu. 

husband  lagi. 

hush  libang. 

hut  ludan. 

hysterical  guinogdoban. 

I  agen,  au,  gaco. 

idea  gonagona. 

ideally  so  gonagona. 

identical  maaron  nog  leen  noc  pomo- 

tangon,  latin,  sopocaraa. 
sopoceglopong. 
pocponongguiling,  pocomo- 

tood. 
poco  maaron,  pocsama. 
gondaay  gaom. 
gotao  gondaay  gaom,  gon- 
daay saboton. 
pogogovitan. 

sogondi     mayac     mogbaal 
moglanglaang,    malonca, 
tapolan. 
soc  mitondong  nog  diuata. 
baga  tondong  noc  abolo  no 

gapoy. 
nocpigaguanta,  piran. 
ignominiously  sopogopia. 
ignorance  pocogondaay   gaom,   poco- 

gondaay  sonan. 
guibid. 

malaat  no  abotang. 
sopogondaay  dason. 
socorolang. 
ladawan. 

sogsocalgunagunaon . 
gunaguna. 
sogmogunaguna. 
pagonaguna,  pogdalomdom 
boangboang,      colang     sog 

boot, 
sogmacaocsop. 
pocoocsop  gacsop. 
socsocalpononggulingan . 
guiling. 

sopoconongguiling,       nong 
maaron. 


identically 
identify 

identity 

idiocy 

idiot 

idiom 
idler 


idolatrous 
ignition 

ignominy 


Iguana 

ill  at  ease 

illicitly 

illuminative 

image 

imaginable 

imagination 

imaginative 

imagine 

imbecile 

imbiber 

imbibition 

imitable 

imitate 

imitation 


imitater 
immutable 

impart 
impassability 

impassable 

impeccable 
impeded 
impel 
imperiously 


sogmonongguiling. 
sogondi  maimo  posocliyan, 

sogondi  maimo  uraman. 
pogambit,  pocquilas. 
pocgondaay  loroon,  pocgon- 

daay  casit. 
sogondi  mogbatic,  sogondi 

maglaro. 
sogondi  maimo  noc  sala. 
pilong. 

doso,  gagda,  tolod,  iguen . 
sopagboot  nogogolingon. 


imperturbable  sogondi  magalin,  soginda- 
gosay. 

impostor  baloson,  molimbong,  saga- 

tad. 

importunate    socdomanlag. 

improve  tomanan. 

inactivity  maya. 

inattentive        moglingalinga. 

incense  palina. 

inclination        sogmitoiac,  sogpacailig. 

indestructible  sogondi  maimo  nong  morala. 

indigo  dagom. 

indivisible  sogondi  maimo  guilaso  boo- 
coon. 


indolent 

infanticide 

infantry 

inflexible 

inheritance 

inhumanly 

iniquitous 

iniquitously 

initiative 

injustice 


ink 

inquire 

inside 

instep 

instruct 

insupportable 

intention 

intestines 

intrepid 

intrepidity 

iron 
ironworks 

irremediably 

irremissibly 

irreverence 

irreverent 

irrevocability 

irritated 


molobay. 

sogmigbono. 

sog  sondalo  moggondaay 
abayo. 

sogondi  maimo  pomagon. 

bilin. 

pocabolo  tugaling. 

malaat,  monlogos. 

sogpacalaat  tugaling. 

pegotaran,  sogmegatad. 

bal  nogondi  socal  so  cato- 
rongan,  calaatan  nogom- 
bagol. 

dawat. 

saac. 

dialum. 

dababau  noc  palapa. 

pocsambag. 

sogondi  maimo  gantoson. 

tuyo. 

tinee. 

ondi  matalao,  di  motahap, 

sogondaay  atalao,  sogon- 
daay  gondoc. 

potao,  cutao. 

balay  noc  poctonaoan  noc 
potao,  pandayan. 

sogondaay  bolong,  sogon- 
daay sopla. 

sogondaay  pocpasaylo. 

pocgondaay  basanon. 

sogantol  nog  basa. 

pogondaay  pocpoli. 

marongot. 


jacket  gawal,  sunk,  legdey. 

jar  bandi,  genlit,  gulen,  lingu- 

lingu,  buun,  kakud,  kali- 
guan,  kundungan,  galu- 
nawan,  dinampak,  gun- 
sulee,  gunsulaki,  lima- 
lima,  galuas,  minanukan, 
sinantan,  sigeban,  sigu- 
ban,  sibulan,  tadjau. 

javelin  noctalloma. 

joint  lelenguan. 

joy  alipayan. 

judge  paggosay,  ponudya,  boot,, 

ocom,  pagonagona. 

judgment  day  gondao  noc  pocponudya. 

judicious  bootan. 

juice  tagek. 

juiciness  pocoloon  noc  sabao. 


224 


THE   SUBANU. 


juicy 

sogdoon  cisabaon. 

lippitude 

raota. 

just 

lopong,  motaron. 

liver 

gatai. 

jute 

lanut. 

load 

lolan. 

juvenile 

mitondong  nog  bata. 

loafer 

sogondi     mayac     mogbaal 
moglanglaang. 

kidney 

bunga. 

lodestone 

bato  balani. 

kill 

bono. 

lodging 

picongolan. 

kilt 

tapis  empetek. 

loftily 

pocobaga. 

kindness 

paalongas. 

log 

batang. 

king 

lare. 

loincloth 

baag. 

knee 

dulud,  taktuai. 

long 

mayaba. 

hollow 

leletek. 

look 

guipos,  ipos,  tobang. 

kneel 

lood. 

looking  glass 

salamin. 

knife 

geg,  hilamon,  kisanggulang. 

loom 

belen. 

loot,   penoto,    pes,   pino- 

love 

mayac. 

balan,  pinuti,  barong. 

lover 

sognigasoy  sonnem  nogayac. 

edge 

baba. 

loving 

malomo  mayac. 

point 

soong. 

lovingly 

gayacsogombagol,  nogayac. 

haft 

subungan. 

low 

obos. 

know 

sonan. 

low  tide 

gonas. 

I  do  not  know  taron. 

luck 

palad. 

knowledge 

gaom. 

lung 

baga,  looc. 

knuckle 

bogotondo. 

machete 

penoto  nogombagol. 

laborer 

moomogbaal,     sogmigbaal. 

magnitude 

gasalagnen. 

gotao  sogboid. 

maiden 

dalaga. 

lack 

colang,  quinaanglan. 

maize 

mais,  daoa. 

lactation 

pagdoro  nonga  gombata. 

make 

baal,  mando. 

ladder 

paghat,  pahat,  gogdan. 

male 

laki. 

lading 

sogod. 

man 

gotao,  lee. 

lady 

bai. 

mango 

mapalam. 

lake 

danao,  lanao. 

manner 

baya. 

lamentable 

socsocalpocsoganan. 

manufacturer  sogmimando. 

land 

bonoa,  bukid,  lopa. 

many 

loon,  madagel. 

language 

talo,  pogogovitan. 

marriage 

poctontal. 

lard 

matia,  laneg. 

married 

luay. 

large 

bagol,  masalag. 

marry 

tontal. 

larynx 

tulakh. 

marsh 

bonoa    nog    tubigan,    lopa 

late 

payat,  ombos. 

nongmoromos,  lanao,mig- 

launch 

pilac. 

lanao  ic  tubig. 

lawful 

dason,  motaron. 

marvel 

tingala. 

lawsuit 

bityala. 

massive 

libon,  dacsoc,  pono,  maligon. 

lawyer 

mangangabang. 

mat 

sapiai. 

lazy 

molobay,  tapolan. 

grass 

damdam. 

leader 

poon. 

cycas 

giham. 

leaf 

doon. 

mattock 

gwasay. 

lean  a 

malagos. 

mature 

bootan,    gomolanggolang ; 

lean  v 

toiac. 

inog. 

leaning 

sogpacailig. 

meadow 

padangan. 

left 

dig  mebang. 

meal 

gaan;  lepet,  bagas  mais. 

leg 

paa,  lintisan. 

measure 

pogliijot  so  mga  linonsoran. 

lemon 

malinao,  pumutul. 

measures 

leprous 

socpongol    so   gomoc,    soc- 

liquid 

pasub. 

pinoquit. 

dry 

gantang. 

lie  n 

bales. 

linear 

kumpau,  depa,  sinantan. 

to  tell  lies 

pocabalos. 

meat 

gunud. 

lie  V 

balilid. 

to  dry 

inoctod. 

life 

catubo. 

to  cure 

porang,  tenite. 

light  a 

sogmolomo  antosan. 

medicines 

gagimut,  gululu,  matansa. 

light  n 

solo,  pangangdan. 

meet 

baangan. 

lightning 

guilat. 

memory 

dalomdom. 

like  a 

sama,  aron,  mopong. 

merchant 

gotao   pimonan,    pisaligan, 

like  V 

bout.  Hag. 

pocsaloy,  nocpogbalidya. 

liking 

ayac. 

mercy 

alalaat. 

lime 

gapog. 

merry 

lipay,  malipay. 

lintel 

golo  nogombagol. 

meteor 

genit  bitun. 

lip 

domomog,  bibig. 

midday 

taassondao. 

ENGLISH-SUBANU   VOCABUIyARY. 


225 


midnight 

gineng  gobii. 

nipple 

ecsipan. 

midwife 

panday  negmegbata;  belilu, 

no 

da,  di,  daay. 

gagun. 

nod 

polog. 

milk 

gatas. 

noon 

gektu  gondao,  taassondao. 

milky 

tondong  no  gatas. 

nose 

soong. 

minced  meat 

menaticaan  no  came  inoctod 

bridge 

batang  soong. 

gopia. 

septum 

imud  soong. 

mind 

gaom. 

interior 

gegbad  soong. 

mirror 

salamin. 

not 

da,  di,  daay. 

mischievousness     nog  metagam  nog  pog- 

not  yet 

daap. 

laat,  batasan. 

now 

nandao,  nenau,  numungini 

misfortune 

malaat  nog  palag,  alisod. 

numungitu. 

misspend 

socpuonan,  ola,  pogola  noc 
salapi. 

nun 

binocot. 

mist 

dope  nog  guinanat. 

oath 

arugo. 

mistake 

socsayop. 

obey 

tuman,  gosod. 

model 

ponongguian. 

obscure 

pogdolan. 

modesty 

matamot. 

obstinate 

lalis. 

moisture 

pocoromos. 

obstruct 

somagang. 

molest 

cotecote,  pimoctong,  samoc. 

obstructer 

macapongong,    socmicao- 

tuyo. 

lang. 

moment 

deliai. 

offensive 

pocobaga. 

money 

salapi,  pilak. 

offspring 

bata. 

monk 

binocot. 

often 

misauta. 

monkey 

gutung,    utung,    tongdug 

oily 

pogooao. 

panga. 

old 

daan,  gomolang,  magulang 

month 

bulan. 

on 

dibabau. 

moon 

bulan. 

once 

minsan. 

new 

bata  bulan. 

one 

sa,  isa,  sala,  salabuk. 

full 

mandawan. 

onion 

sabilino. 

dark 

mipupus. 

or 

bo,  bu. 

morning 

siselem,  suansolom,  diselum. 

orchard 

sulal. 

mortar  (rice) 

lusung. 

order  n 

gosay. 

mosquito  bar 

kulambu. 

order  v 

sogo. 

mother 

gina,  ina. 

origin 

pegotaran. 

mother-in-law     ponongangan. 

orphan 

bata  ilu. 

motive 

tungdong. 

our 

name. 

mound 

bod. 

outward 

sa  gua. 

mountain 

dungus,  gedungusan,  bui. 

over 

ditaas. 

mouse 

gibasgibas. 

overflow 

baa. 

mouth 

baba. 

overshadow 

pogdolan. 

much 

dagel,  loon. 

mud 

basac,  tamisac. 

pack 

solog,  soglogua,  quipos. 

musket 

sinapang. 

paddy  field 

binal. 

mutilate 

pongol. 

pain 

cogool. 

pair 

magimpang. 

nail 

bocsoc,  ogboc,  lansang,  pa- 

palatable 

mis. 

soc,  toclop. 

palate 

danaan. 

fingernail 

kanuku. 

palm 

palad. 

name 

ngalan. 

lines  in  the  palm     kulis. 

nape 

tinhug,  tiungo. 

palpitate 

poolog  nog  guilid  sopoglo- 

narrow 

moloctin. 

guinaoa  boctasan. 

naughty 

tampalasan. 

pant 

pocolog. 

navel 

pusu. 

pardon 

poylo,  pasaylo. 

near 

good. 

parent 

mogulang. 

neck 

leeg,  tinhug. 

parishioner 

poglogotaoan  pisala  noc  pa- 

necklace 

bitegel. 

roquia,  sacog. 

need 

quinaanglan. 

part 

bahagi,  bahin. 

needle 

tee. 

partition 

gogbag. 

needy 

meebog. 

pass 

pocbiyan,  casit,  loroon. 

nervousness 

badi. 

passable 

maglaro. 

nest 

salag. 

path 

daan,  dalan,  gaitan. 

net 

giyud,  pasawit. 

patrimony 

bilin,  socmicpongon. 

never 

di  gusay. 

peasant 

socmoctoloan  noc  subanun. 

night 

gobii. 

people 

leenleen. 

nine 

siam. 

pepper 

sell. 

ninety 

siampulu. 

peppery 

malalas. 

226 


THE   SUBANU. 


perfect 

perhaps 

perjury 

permit 

person 

pertain 

pertaining  to 

pestle 

petticoat 

pickpocket 

picture 

pierce 

pig 

pigeon 

pillow 

pipe 

pipestem 

pit,  to  fall  in 

place 

plain 

plant  n 

plant  V 

plasterer 

plate 

platter 

play 

plow 

plump 

point  (knife) 

poison  n 

poison  V 

poor 

pork 

post 

potbelly 

poultice 

pound 

pounding 

power 

powerful 

prairie 

praise 

pray 

pregnant 

prejudicial 

pretty 

price 

priest 

princess 

procreate 

profit 

prompt 

provision 

puddle 

pulpit 

pungent 

pup 

pupil  (eye) 

purple 

purse 

push 

put 


tobos. 
saoan. 
pombaal. 
togot. 
gotao. 
tondong. 
noquito. 
gelu. 

lagnas,  tapis, 
dao. 

ladawan. 
lugbas. 

baboy,  buktin,  tinuksuk. 
malapati,  manatud. 
goloan. 
sigupan. 
silup. 
to     lolid,  bosacan. 
bonoa,  bawang,  butang. 
lopa  nong  napo  nogondaay 

magpondopondo. 
pomolonan. 
guroc. 

sogmoglerme  nog  basac. 
lainpai,  pinggan. 
talam. 

lamot,  megleymet. 
badya,  daro. 
lombo,  pocsopang. 
soong. 

lupag,  milo,  bolic. 
pocpoinom,  poctuba. 
meebog,  miskinan. 
bool   noc   paa   nog   baloy, 

gunud  baboy. 
pasek. 
macabagol  noc  tian. 

gaclop. 

locpog,  ocdoc. 

pogocdoc. 

gaom. 

gasalagnen. 

pacanapo  tugaling. 

pogdaig. 

gampo,  pocdiuata. 

boros,  poloponan. 

moglaat. 

longas. 

laga. 

balian. 

bai. 

lioat. 

polos. 

dali. 

balon. 

bonoa  noc  tubigan,  donaoan 

ulihan. 

malalas. 

bocposon. 

ginotau. 

taluk. 

conotconot. 

tolod. 

guison,  butang. 


quarrelsome     malalison. 
question  saac. 


quick 

dali. 

quickly 

pagas. 

quiet 

malali  yamo  mocsasa. 

quietly 

may  a. 

rabble 

mga  gotao  socalpalalabian. 

mga  gotao  nog  mesequin. 

raft 

aloonan  nog  gayoonan,  gu- 

set. 

rage 

megolos  guisoc,  pocsopoc. 

rags 

danol,  ponopoton  nog  daan. 

porot. 

rain  n 

dope,  pusilau. 

rain  v 

poctolo  nongo  gatop. 

rainwater 

tubig  nog  dope. 

rainy 

toon  nog  dogdope,  marope. 

rancid 

pogooao. 

range 

gedungusan. 

rascal 

tolisan. 

rasher 

bool  noc  paa  nog  baboy. 

rat 

togubung. 

ration 

balon. 

rattan 

gooay. 

read 

basa. 

reason 

alaik  punanen,  alaik  sabab. 

gutek,  tungdong. 

rebel 

sogmololison. 

receive 

domangop. 

recline 

balilid. 

red 

pulo,  bolao,  pongompig. 

redness 

gapulonen. 

region 

lonsod. 

relative 

sogombaya  nog  moloon  nog. 

magleinlein,  aromananan. 

remedy 

sopla. 

remember 

gumauna,  dalinduman. 

renowned 

arunaan,  salapian,  dato. 

repay 

pocpuli. 

repent 

inunsalan,  guinonosola. 

repentance 

basulan. 

replete 

bontal. 

reputation 

dongog. 

resin 

lunai,  palina. 

resolution 

pegoyonan. 

respect 

basa,  taod. 

revoke 

poll. 

revolve 

tabo. 

revolving 

sogmogbolobod. 

rib 

gusuk. 

rice 

unhusked 

balay. 

husked 

begas. 

boiled 

gemai,  pulut. 

beer 

gasi,  pangasi. 

ricefield 

binal. 

rich 

arunaan,     dato,     salapian. 

magaus. 

ridgepole 

libongan. 

right 

digliut;  taron. 

ring  (arm) 

linggit. 

(finger) 

sising. 

(shin) 

lintisan  sising. 

ripe 

mimug,  inog;  bootan. 

ripeness 

pacainog. 

rising  tide 

poglogonas. 

river 

suba,  tubig. 

rivulet 

sapasapa. 

ENGUSH-SUBANU  VOCABULARY. 


227 


road  daan,  dalan. 

rob  salumnenka. 

rogue  sogmalaat  nog  botasan,  to- 

lisan,  lee  nog  tapolan. 

romp  megleymet. 

roof  gatop. 

rooster  limansud. 

rope  tali. 

round  maliputut,  lingin. 

rumor  tontoltontol. 

rump  boktol,  guging. 

run  genenkan,  goboc. 

saffron  lalag. 

sago  lumbia. 

sail  layag. 

saliva  dula. 

salt  masin. 

same  maaron,  latin. 

sand  goles. 

satisfy  poctoman  noc  atandanan. 

saucer  lainpai. 

scatter  lagoy. 

school  guiscuelaan. 

science  gaom. 

scraper  lisan. 

sea  dagat. 

seacoast  balingdagat. 

see  mita  ipos. 

seed  bigibigi,  goroc. 

seize  pocpongong,  pocaoid. 

seldom  somolondon. 

sell  balidya,  daghan,  pocsaloy. 

seiior  sengguil. 

separate  boclag,  lombos. 

septum  imud. 

sermon  tabal. 

servant  biag. 

settlement        gampu. 

seven  pitu. 

seventy  pitupulu. 

sew  meneg. 

shanty  ludan. 

shape  pogliquimo,  pogbaal. 

share  guilas,  ambit. 

shawl  musalabungkas. 

she  guien,  geyen,  iin. 

sheep  bilibili. 

shield  lasag,  taming. 

shin  lintisan. 

shinbone  belintis. 

ship  gapal,  sacay. 

shipping  pocosacay. 

shirt  sunk. 

shoot  saa. 
shooting  star  genit  bitun. 

shore  balingdagat. 

short  empetek. 

shoulder  baga. 
shoulderblade  belagel. 

shower  dope,  pusilau. 

shuttle  siyuan. 

sick  laronon. 

sickle  pes  nog  molio,  seilad. 

sickness  laroon. 


side  guilid. 

to  one  side        sogpacailig. 
from  side  to  side     cotat,  poyo,  debaloy. 

sieve  dunukun. 

signal  toos. 

silly  gongog,  culang  nog  boot. 

silver  salapi,  pilak. 

similar  aron,  mopong,  sama. 

sin  sala. 

sinner  maasasala. 

sister  gilugu. 

sit  guingcod. 

six  gonom. 

sixty  gonompulu. 

skein  palos. 

sketch  landasan. 

skilful  sinonan,  somoon. 

skin  ganit,  panit. 

skirt  tapis. 

sky  langit. 

slander  pogangay  nog  rongog,  pog- 

liboc. 

slanderer  sogmogangay  nog  dongog. 

slap  tampoling,  sogpaon. 

slash  sontoc,  pocpoc. 

slave  gulipim,  nlipun,  biag. 

sleep  tolog. 

slender  peed. 

slope  maranaya. 

small  micia. 

smallness  gabiganen. 

smite  bona!. 

smoke  gobal. 

smoky  sogmogombal. 

smooth  melenin. 

snatch  gagao. 

snout  mirapal. 

soften  momoc  posol,  banig. 

soil  baal,  pogbaal,  napo,  bukid, 

lopa. 

soldier  pilak,  sondalo. 

sole  palapa. 

solid  libon,  maligon,  dacsoc,  pono. 

son  bata. 

soot  gagoy. 

sooty  sogmigagoj^an. 

sore  laroon  nog  guimood,  gangol. 

soul  guimud,  guinaoa;  puluntu. 

sour  mosom,  gosomnen. 

sow  n  baboy  talon  boloog.lanayan. 

sow  V  goroc. 

spate  baa  noc  tubig. 

spear  bosi,  moni,  noctalloma,  sa- 

lapang,    sebat,    talawan, 

tinalagan. 

spearhead  limayas,  tinabagen. 

speak  gabit. 

spectacles  antocos. 

spherical  lingin. 

spider  balingawa. 

spike  bocsoc,  lansang. 

spin  tingol. 

spinach  linagami. 

spinner  sogmogtingol. 
spinning  room     inu. 


spinning  wheel    tingilan. 


228 


THE   SUBANU. 


spirit  apujungal,  balian,  bulatuk, 

dipuksaya,  diuata,  ge- 
lektu,  guinagan,  gulai, 
gwakgwak,  kalamonte, 
mamanua,  manamat,  ma- 
nubu,  matubud,  minubu, 
mitubu,  mogolot,  munlu, 
salomaya.sarut.sindupan, 
tamiang,  tibogok. 

spirit  house      maligai. 

spiritless  pagoquion. 

spit  pocdula. 

spoiled  child     poraigon. 

spoon  sanduk,  sulidat. 

spout  tugaya. 

spread  lerme. 

spring  bual,    tobod,    tobora,    poc- 

tuan. 

sprinkle  pocsicay. 

sprout  pegotaran,  saa,  tobo,  bone, 

buat. 

spun  tinongol. 

squander  pogola  noc  salapi. 

stack  tambun. 

stand  guindog. 

standard  bearer    sogmogoit  nog  bandela. 

star  bitun. 

steal  salumnenka,  pogdao. 

steamship         gapal  gapoy. 

stem  pakanem. 

step  poguindog. 

stepchild  tinaguilo. 

steps  paghat,  pahat,  gogdan. 

stew  loto. 

stewpan  tacho. 

stick  gapud. 

stomach  cotooto,  tiboa. 

stone  bate. 

store  tago,  poquison,  pocquipos. 

storeroom         siclat. 

storm  gonos  nong  marisa. 

stove  delengan. 

stow  dacsoc. 

stowaway  sogsomacay. 

strand  balingdagat. 

strength  socoa. 

strengthen        tugol. 

strike  bonal,  sontoc. 

stroke  pogbonal,    pagsontoc,    poc- 

poc,  litobong. 

strong  socog. 

succulence        pocoloon  noc  sabao. 

sucking  pig       buktin. 

suckle  doro. 

sugar  binagel. 

summit  atapusan  sog  benoiran. 

summon  tauac. 

sun  gondao. 

sunrise  sumibang  gondao,  sulu. 

sunset  sindep  gondao. 

sunshine  pedes. 

supper  lobungan. 

supply  bogay. 

supplies  pogandam  nog  gaan,  pogan- 

dam  nog  pomotangon. 

surf  pocdanlag  nog  balod. 

survey  gogba. 


suspect 

taap. 

swallowing 

goglon. 

swamp 

bonoa  noc  tubigan. 

sweat 

golas,  mamis. 

sweetness 

gemisnen. 

sweet  potato 

gobe,  camote. 

swelling 

buyun. 

swindler 

lee  nog  tapolan,  sogmalaat 

nog  botasan. 

swing 

pacpoyo,  cotat. 

syphilis 

laroon  migalin. 

table 

binabalay,  bukar. 

tail 

gikud. 

take 

angay. 

tale 

tontoltontol. 

talk 

pigagabit,  tingog. 

talker 

tabian. 

tall 

mataas. 

tattooing 

liluk,  patik. 

tax 

pamuku,  buis. 

teach 

toon. 

teacher 

gulu. 

tear 

lua. 

to  shed  tears    sogao. 

tear  duct  pocpongimotacan. 

tempest  gonos  nong  marisa. 

ten  sapulu. 

thank  mangampon. 

the  ang. 

theft  pigdaoan. 

there  dien  iposay. 

they  guilan,  ilan. 

thick  moreipol. 

thief  dao,  mogdao. 

thievish  sogmetondong  sogmogda- 

dao. 

thigh  puunpaa. 

thin  malagos,  nepes. 

think  pogonagona. 

thinness  monepes. 

thirty  tolopulu. 

this  geniya,  gini. 

thorax  gagen. 

thou  a,  ga,  iga,  ya,  neen,  nia.niya. 

thought  gonagona,  gutek. 

thousand  songibu. 

thread  tanud. 

three  tolo. 

throat  geeg,    geleg,    leeg,    langag, 

donaan. 

thrust  doque. 

thumb  galubalu. 

thunder  logong. 

tibia  belintis. 

tide  pocaolog  nogonnos. 

low  gonas. 

risi  n  g  poglogonas,  soctobig,  poc- 

taab. 

till  baal,  pogbaal. 

timber  gayo. 

time  toon. 

timid  atalao. 

tin  tatungo. 

tire  supoc,  pogbollo. 

tired  lopugu. 

tobacco  box  batangan  laget. 


ENGLISH-SUBANU   VOCABULARY. 


229 


to-day 

cone  no  gondao,  nenau,  gon- 

vagabond 

sogondi     mayac     mogbaal 

dao. 

moglanglaang,  tapolan. 

toe 

goyamet  gocsud. 

varnish 

lomi,  bolit,  posinao. 

small 

goangai  gocsud. 

vein 

gugat. 

great 

galubalu  gocsud. 

venereal  disease    buot   socpog   libon    no 

to-morrow 

lema,  belema,  luma. 

gotao. 

day  after  to 

-morrow  donlag,  salan  gon- 

very 

gopia,  gosaca,  tugaling,  ma- 

dao. 

ligat. 

tongue 

dila. 

vessel 

sacay. 

tooth 

ngisi. 

vex 

samoc,  tuyo. 

torch 

sulu. 

village 

gampu  nog  balay,   gampu 

town 

bonoal. 

nog  bawang,  lonsod. 

trader 

nocpogbalidya. 

vine 

bolagan  nog  bolaan. 

transport 

pocogoit,  pocoatud. 

vinegar 

osisang. 

tree 

gayo. 

tribute 

pamuku,  buis. 

wailing 

sogao. 

trough 

ogasan,  palongan. 

wait 

pogulatay. 

trousers 

gawes,  gantiu,  salwal. 

walk 

laang. 

true 

motood. 

wall 

cota,  donding. 

trumpet 

bogguiong. 

want 

colang. 

trunk 

caban. 

war 

gubat. 

try 

indamanta. 

war  cry 

buksai. 

tuck 

conotconot. 

warped 

caliuanag  no  calingin. 

turban 

panggu. 

waste 

ola,  socpuonan. 

twice 

kadua. 

water 

tubig. 

twins 

gapid. 

wave 

balod. 

twist 

calingin. 

wax 

nila. 

two 

dua. 

we 

gita,  ita,  garni,  ami. 

weak 

gasa,  malobay. 

ulcer 

laroon  nog  guimood,  gangol. 

wealth 

gaus. 

umbrella 

payung. 

wealthy 

arunaan,  lee  nog  bandian 

uncertainty 

socsayop. 

magaus. 

uncle 

manak,  gaya. 

weary 

cotecote,  samoc,  tuyo. 

uncultivated 

lopa  mogondaapa  balay  go- 

weather 

gonos  nong  marisa,  linao. 

racan  bo  pomolonan. 

weave 

tinina. 

under 

baba,  dialum,  perealon. 

wedge 

gocsip,  pansal. 

underneath 

silong. 

weep 

pocsogao. 

understand 

sabot. 

weeper 

socmocsogao,  malisogon. 

understandin 

g  motoo. 

weeping 

iglua. 

unequal 

sogondaay  ig  doma,  sogon- 

weld 

pagbaga  noc  potao. 

daay  pares. 

well 

timba. 

unhappy 

nanaan,  tiroo. 

west 

sindepan. 

uninhabited 

lopa  mogondaapa  balay  go- 

west  wind 

balat. 

racan,  sogondaay  pocon- 

wet 

romos. 

golan. 

whelp 

bocposon. 

unite 

lompoc,   gongaya,   pongon, 

when 

nano. 

timod,  topoc. 

where 

tama. 

unlawful 

sogondaay   dason,    sogondi 

white 

goguis,  poti. 

motaron. 

whiten 

pocpoti. 

unlike 

dilo  mopong. 

whitewash 

poglomi  no  gapog,  pogugba 

unlimited 

sogondaay  atapusan  pingoc- 

wholly 

tibooc. 

toban. 

why 

alaik  punanen,  alaik  sabab 

unmarried 

golitao,  dalaga. 

toma,  long. 

unpardonable  sogondi  maimo  noc  pasay- 

wicked 

pinilian. 

Ion. 

wickedness 

poalat. 

unripe 

mangud. 

widow 

balu  nog  libun;  liingan. 

un  sal  ted 

nogondaay    masin,     moto- 

widower 

balu  nog  lee;  liingan. 

bang. 

wife 

soay,  sawa. 

unseasonable 

sogondi  inog. 

wild 

libuyu,  talon. 

unskilled 

sogondaay     mitagam,     so- 

boar 

butaal. 

gondi  somoon. 

will 

buot. 

unskilfully 

sogondaay  sinonan. 

win 

daag. 

untruth 

balos. 

wind 

up 

ditaas. 

to  blow 

gonos. 

to  go  up 

moneec. 

west 

balat. 

upon 

dibaban. 

windpipe 

gagen. 

urinate 

guyo. 

wine 

bino. 

230 


THE   SUBANU. 


wise 

motoo. 

wrap 

tongos. 

wish 

Hag. 

wrist 

pinugulan. 

within 

dialum. 

write 

saquit. 

wizard 

gonlo. 

writer 

sogmogsosulat. 

woman 

libun. 

writing 

sulat. 

womb 

ginubungan. 

wry 

timpas. 

wood 

gayo. 

work 

baal. 

yam 

ubi. 

workable 

socsocalbalon. 

year 

toon. 

workshop 

bonoa  noc  pogbaalan. 

yellow 

maralag,  dalag,  pocsobblag 

world 

alibutan. 

yes 

maa,  naa. 

worse 

maligos  tugaling. 

yesterday 

labong. 

worthy 

mayac. 

you 

amo,    game,    lamo,    yamo 

wound 

laroon  nog  guimood,  gangol. 

niyo. 

wrangle 

lalis. 

young 

batit,  gakpis,  nati. 

LIST  OF  MODERN  BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE  FOR  EXAMINATION  AND  READING  ON 
THE  SUBJECT  OF  AMERICAN  OCCUPATION  OF  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

1.  Our  Conquests  in  the  Pacific,  by  Oscar  K.  Davis  (American),  1898,  1  vol, 

2.  The  Story  of  the  Philippines,  by  Amos  K.  Fiske  (American),  1898,  i  vol. 

3.  The  Expedition  to  the  Phihppines,  by  Frank  D.  Millett  (American),  1899,  i  vol. 

4.  The  Philippines  and  Round  About,  by  Maj.  G.  J.  Younghusband  (English),  1899,  ivol. 

5.  The  Inhabitants  of  the  Phihppines,  by  Frederick  H.  Sawyer  (English),  1900,  i  vol. 

6.  The  Report  of  the  Schurman  Commission  on  the  Philippines  (American),  1900,  3  vols. 

7.  Annual  Reports  of  the  Philippine  Commission,  1900  to  1912,  47  vols. 

8.  Bamboo  Tales,  by  Lieut.  Ira  L.  Reeves,  U.  S.  Army  (American),  1900,  i  vol. 

9.  Aguinaldo  and  His  Captor,  by  Murat  Halstead  (American),  1901,  i  vol. 

10.  The  Philippine  Islands  and  Their  People,  by  Dean  C.  Worcester  (American),  ist  edition 

1898,  2d  edition  1901,  i  vol.  each. 

11.  Pronoimcing  Gazetteer  and  Geographical  Dictionary  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  by 

Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs,  War  Department,  Washington,  1902,  i  vol. 

12.  The  Katipunan  or  The  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Filipino  Commune,  by  Francis  St.  Clair 

(American),  1902,  i  vol. 

13.  Oriental  America  and  Its  Problems,  by  Theodore  W.  Noyes  (American),  1903,  i  vol. 

14.  The  U.  S.  Census  Reports  of  the  Phihppine  Islands,  1903,  4  vols. 

15.  Studies  in  Moro  History,  Law  and  Religion,  by  Najeeb  M.  Saleeby  (Armenian-Ameri- 

can), 1904,  I  vol. 

1 6.  The  Gems  of  the  East,  by  Henry  Savage  Landor  (English),  1904,  2  vols. 

17.  The  New  Era  in  the  Philippines,  by  Arthur  Judson  Brown,  D.  D.  (American),  1904,  i  vol. 

18.  The  Philippines  and  the  Far  East,  by  Homer  C.  Stuntz  (German-American),  1904,  i  vol. 

19.  The  Negritos  of  Zambales,  by  William  Allen  Reed  (American),  1904,  i  vol. 

20.  The  Bontoc  Igorot,  by  Prof.  Albert  E.  Jenks  (American),  1905,  i  vol. 

2  1.  The  Naboloi  Dialects,  by  Otto  Scheerer  (German-American),  1905,  i  vol. 

22.  The  Bataks  of  Palawan,  by  Lieut.  Edward  Y.  Miller,  U.  S.  Army  (American),  1905,  i  vol. 

23.  The  Philippine  Experiences  of  an  American  Teacher,  by  William  B.  Freer  (American), 

1906. 

24.  Under  Spanish  and  American  Rules,  by  C.  H.  Forbes- Lindsay  (English),  1906,  i  vol. 

25.  The  Philippine  Islands,  by  John  Foreman,  F.  G.  R.  S.  (English),  ist  edition  1890,  2d 

edition  1899,  3d  edition  1906. 

26.  The  Philippine  Islands  from  1493  to  1898,  by  Emma  Helen  Blair  and  James  Alexander 

Robertson  (Americans),  1906,  55  vols. 

27.  Hand-book  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  by  Hamilton  M.  Wright  (American),  1907,  i  vol. 

28.  History  of  the  Sulu  Archipelago,  by  Najeeb  M.  Saleeby  (Armenian- American),  1908, 

1  vol. 

29.  The  Batan  Dialect,  by  Otto  Scheerer  (German-American),  1908,  i  vol. 

30.  The  Subanuns  of  Sindangan  Bay,  by  Emerson  B.  Christie  (American),  1909,  i  vol. 

31.  The  West  in  the  East,  by  Price  Collier  (American),  191 1,  i  vol. 

32.  My  Impressions  of  the  Philippines,  by  Miss  M.  E.  Fee  (American),  1910,  i  vol. 

2,3.  American  Occupation  of  the  Philippines,  by  James  H.  Blount  (American),  1912,  i  vol. 

34.  Sanskrit-English  Dictionary,  by  Theodore  Benfey,  London,  i  vol.,  1866. 

35.  Malay-English  and  English-Malay  Dictionary,  by  Sir  Frank  A.  Swettenham,  London, 

2  vols.,  8th  edition,  1909. 

36.  Malay  Grammar,  by  W.  G.  Shellabear,  Singapore,  i  vol.,  1899. 

37.  Handbook  and  Grammar  of  the  Tagalog  Language,  by  Lieut.  W.  E.  W.  MacKinlay, 

U.  S.  Army,  Washington,  i  vol.,  1905. 

38.  English-Sulu-Malay  Vocabulary,  by  Andson  Cowie,  London,  i  vol.,  1893. 

39.  Malay-English  and  English-Malay  Dictionary,  by  William  Marsden,  London,  i  vol., 

1812. 

40.  Colonial  Administration,  The  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Treasury  Department,  Washington, 

I  vol.,  1903. 

231 


232  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

41.  El  Sanscrito  en  la  Lengua  Tagalog,  by  T.  H.  Pardo  de  Tavera,  Paris,  i  vol.,  Paris,  1887. 

42.  English- Arabic  and  Arabic-English  Dictionary,  by  F.  Steingass,  London,  i  vol.,  1882. 

43.  Colonial  Administration,  by  Prof.  Paul  S.  Reinsch,  New  York,  i  vol.,  1905. 

44.  World  Pontics,  by  Prof.  Paul  S.  Reinsch,  New  York,  i  vol.,  1903. 

45.  The  Magindanao  Moro  Dialect,  by  R.  S.  Porter,  Assistant  Surgeon,  U.  S.  Army,  Wash- 

ington, I  vol.,  1903. 

46.  The  Magindanao  Moro  Dialect,  by  Capt.  C.  C.  Smith,  U.  S.  Army,  Washington,  i  vol., 

1907. 

47.  Tagalog-English  and  English-Tagalog  Dictionary,  by  Charles  Nigg,  Manila,  i  vol.,  1904. 

48.  The  Native  Tribes  of  the  Philippines,  by  Prof.  Ferdinand  Blumentrit,  Berlin,  i  vol.,  1890. 

49.  The  Peopling  of  the  Philippines,  by  Rudolph  Virchow,  Berlin,  i  vol.,  1897. 

50.  Proceedings  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  1898  to  1910,  Washington,  13  vols. 

5 1 .  Annual  Reports  of  the  American  Army  in  the  Philippines,  Reports  of  the  War  Depart- 

ment, Washington,  1898  to  1912,  21  vols. 

52.  Modem  Egypt,  by  the  Earl  of  Cromer,  New  York,  2  vols.,  1908. 

53.  The  Straits  of  Malacca,  Indo-China  and  China,  by  J.  Thomson,  New  York,  i  vol.,  1875. 

54.  The  Island  of  Formosa,  Past  and  Present,  by  J.  R.  Davidson,  London,  i  vol.,  1903. 

55.  Diccionario  Espanol-Bagobo,  by  M.  Gisbert,  Manila,  i  vol.,  1892. 

56.  Diccionario  Tiruray-Espafiol,  by  G.  Bennasar,  Manila,  i  vol.,  1892. 

57.  Biblioteca  Filipina,  Washington,  1903. 

58.  Civil  Government  under  Military  Occupation,  by  Magoon,  Bureau  of  Insular  Affairs, 

War  Department,  Washington,  1908,  i  vol. 

59.  The  First  Grammar  of  the  Language  Spoken  by  the  Bontoc  Igorot  with  a  Vocabulary 

and  Texts,  Mythology,  Folklore,  Historical  Episodes,  Songs;  by  Dr.  Carl  Wilhelm 
Seidenadel,  Chicago,  1909. 


INDEX. 


a,  noun-formative 107 

primordial  demonstrative 155 

absorption  of  alien  speech 77 

Acuna,  Father   Pasqual  de,  mission 

pioneer 37 

a'e 109 

Aeta  autochthons 4,  92 

in  Misamis 6 

restricted  to  Surigao 7 

afi 104 

agi 105 

agricultm-e 15 

ala 109 

alelo 108 

alimago 107 

alphabet 55 

altar 33 

ao-final 70 

'apa 120 

'ape 121 

appulse 68 

aptigaleveleve 108 

arithmetic 151 

arrow 112 

Arze,  Bishop  Don  Pedro  de,  Subanu 

mission 37 

aspiration 64,  83,  105,  109 


asu 

ate 

attributive,  part  of  speech 

a'u 

'au 

autochthons 


6-mutation 87 

balian 

banana 

Bantu 

Barrows 

barter 7,  1 1 

basket 

bath 

Beach-la-Mar 

beard  

bellows 

betel  chewing 

big-plenty 

blood  atonement 

blood-brotherhood 9 

Blumentrit,  Ferdinand 

Bohol 

Bontoc  Igorot 

Bopp,  Franz 

bow 26, 

burial 32 

burnt  designs 


106 
106 
"3 
105 
121 

4 

,96 

32 

19 

58 

3 

,28 

16 

27 

77 

26 

24 

20 

162 

41 

,11  ! 

2  I 
II 
92  I 

lOI  I 
112  I 
.38    I 


23 


PAGE. 

camote 18 

Campo,  Father  Juan  del 37 

cannibalism 36 

carving 24 

cave  burial 39 

celibacy 29 

Chao  Jukua 10 

characteristics 26 

chief 24 

childbirth 40 

Chinook  jargon 77 

Christianity 36 

Christie,  Emerson  Brewer i 

Chu-Fanchi 10 

cigarette 20 

circumcision 27 

cleanliness 27 

closed  syllable 64 

closm-e  organs 59 

cloth 23 

clothing 26 

cock-a-doodle-doo 60 

Colin,  Father  Francisco 9 

color 26 

Combes,  Father  Francisco i,  4,  37 

community 25 

community-house 115 

composition 55,  66 

consonant  formation 57 

consonantal  modulants 127,  155 

constriction,  vocal  organs 59 

cooking 23 

counting 28 

country-dance 170 

crane  posture 27 

Crawfurd,  John 4.  103 

crop  storage 16 

cry,  animal 60 

culture,  laggard 12 

customs 26 

d-mutation 69,  86,  96 

Dampier  Strait 174 

Dapitan 1 1 

datu 24 

decimal  numeration 152 

defecation 27 

demonstrative,  part  of  speech 113 

design 23 

determinant  compound 127,  155 

digging  stick 15 

diphthong,  final 169 

discovery 8 

disease 31 

diuata 32 

divorce 41 

233 


234 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

dowry 29 

dream 30 

duplication  phenomena 65 

dye 23 

ear  ornament 27 

ear  piercing 27 

excreta 27 

/-mutation 104,  1 16,  136 

fa 163 

fa' a Ill 

fafa 109 

fafine no 

fale 112 

family 25 

fana 112 

fanua 113 

farming 15 

fatu 115 

Felix  de  la  Encamacion,  Father  Juan  52 

fence 19 

festival 33 

fetu 115 

Figueroa,  Captain  Rodriguez  de .  .  .  .  36 

figure-four  posture 27 

fill 117 

fine 1 10 

finger-count 5° 

fire-making 24 

fireplace 24 

fitu 166 

foe 117 

folk-lore 30 

food  crops 18 

forest  destruction 16 

formative  members 72 

Forrest,  Captain  Thomas 3 

Friederici,  Captain  Georg 112,  173 

fuga 117 

funeral 38 

^-dropping 61 

g-mutation 84,  95 

g-prefix 67 

gafulu 168 

garbage 22 

giant 7 

gods 32 

Gomez,  Father  Caspar 37 

gong 66 

government 24 

grave 39 

guides 20 

Gutierrez,  Father  Pedro 37 

/f-mutation 137 

habits 26 

hair 26 

Harafora 3 

hee-haw 60 

Hirth,  Friedrich 10 

homestead  law 17 

house 21 

human  sacrifice 34 

Humboldt,  Wilhelm  von loi 


PAGE. 

i,  primordial  demonstrative 155 

ia 118 

i'a 118 

image 33 

implements 17 

incest 40,  4 1 

incision 27 

Indian  vocables  in  English 172 

inhumation 39 

inu 119 

infix 73,  102,  146 

inversion 66,  90,  104 

isu 119 

i'u 119 

iva 167 

jag 49 

jargon  speech ; 77 

Jesuit  missions 36 

^-mutation 84,  95 

^-prefix 67 

kaingin 15 

Kalibugans 13 

kana 124 

kangaroo 50 

kappation 69,  116 

Kipit 7 

Krooboy  jargon 78 

kumi 124 

/-loss 87 

/-mutation 81,  93 

la'a 125 

labials 63 

ladder 21 

lafa 124 

lagi 125 

lago 125 

lalo 125 

lano 126 

lau 126 

le 126 

leai 128 

Lefevre,  Andre 99 

Legaspi,  Miguel  Lopez 11 

legends 30 

li7na 164 

Unguals 64 

lingual  mutation 69 

linguo-labial  mutation 63,  86 

linguo-palatal  mutation 63,  86 

Wo 129 

lips,  voice  character 63 

lip-reading 63 

loan  material 74 

logo 129 

Lopez,  Father  Juan 37 

lua 130 

Ilia 159 

w-formation 60 

wi-mutation 82,  94 

ma  conditional  formative no,  130 

maga 131 

Magellan,  Ferdinand 8 


INDEX. 


235 


PAOB. 

ma'i 130 

Malay  invasion 93,  98,  107,  172 

Malayo-Polynesian  speech  family.  .  .99,  170 

malemo 131 

mama 131 

manifi 132 

manino 132 

manu 132 

marriage 29,  39 

Masibai  Moros 6 

masima 133 

mat 23 

mata 133 

mate 134 

mathematics 151 

mati'u'u 134 

matou 135 

medicine 34,  39 

metal  workers 24 

micturition 27 

migration  lines 89 

Mohammedanism 10 

moo 60 

Morga,  Governor  Don  Antonio 36 

Moros 7.13 

Moro  Exchange 7,28 

mourning 41 

■muli 135 

Miiller,  Friedrich 100 

mute,  prefaced 71 

myriad,  diffuse  plurality 162 

myth 30 

n-mutation 61,  82,  94 

name  secrecy 29 

namu 135 

nasals 59 

Nawang 7 

necklace 27 

negative 126 

neigh 60 

Negritos 92 

Negro-Euglish  jargon 78 

net 24 

ng-mutation 61,  81,  94 

nifo 136 

niu 138 

nose,  speaking  through 59 

numeration 151 

'oe 122 

offerings 32 

ono 165 

onomatopoeia 60 

open  syllable 64 

orthography  unsystematized i 

Otazo,  Father  Francisco 37 

oti 134 

Oyolava 50 

/?-rautation 86,  97 

palatals,  Subanu 64 

palate,  voice  character 63 

Paliola,  Father  Francisco 37 

Panungo 25 

Papimiento  jargon 78 


PAOS. 

paradeictic,  part  of  speech 113 

Parado,  General  Gonzalez 8 

parts  of  speech 113 

pasa 151 

Pastell,  Father  Pablo 6 

Pe 139 

Pedrosa,  Father  Adolf o 37 

pepelo 140 

phonetics 55 

physique 26 

Pidgin  jargon 77 

Pigafetta,  Francesco  Antonio 8 

pile-house 21 

pili 140 

pillow 23 

Po 139 

Po 140 

polyandry 29 

polygamy 29 

Polynesian,  early  inhabitants  of  Ma- 
laysia    172 

Polynesian  Wanderings 173 

pottery 23 

prayer 33 

preduplication 66 

prefaced  mutes 71 

pregnancy  customs 40 

prefix 72 

priest,  see  balian. 

priest-chief 24 

prosthesis 104 

pu'e  {but) 1 84 

puga 140 

pupula 141 

pusi 141 

quarantine 31 

quinary  numeration 152,  161 

r-mutation 80 

r-d-mutation 70 

religion 32 

Retana 5 

ring 27 

Ronquillo,  General  Juan 37 

s-mutation 83,  96,  137 

5-d-mutation 70 

sala 141 

sago 19 

Saleeby,  Najeeb  M 2 

salt 13 

Samoan  kingship 48 

Sarsali,  Father  Fabricio 37 

schools 38 

sea 12 

sedentary  posture 23 

sefulu 168 

selu 142 

semivowels 59 

Sharif  Mohamad  Kabungsuwan ....  24 

shoot 112 

shrine t,;^ 

Sicatuna 11 

si'u 119 

slavery 3.  6,  7 


236 


IND^X. 


PAOB. 

small-plenty . 162 

snare 24 

sonant 61 

Spanish  loan  words 74 

spirit 32 

splay-foot 26 

stair 21 

stove 24 

strength  in  speech 69,  88 

Subanu  census 8 

origin  of  name i 

primordial  Visayan  type ....  89 

residence i 

tribal  subdivisions 7 

Subanu-Bontoc  afiiliation 97 

Subanu-Visayan  common  speech  ele- 
ment    78 

filiation 77 

Polynesian  content .  1 70 

subjection 31 

suffix 72 

sulu 142 

siisu 142 

susujiu 143 

syllables 64 

/-mutation 69,  85,  96 

ta  conditional  formative no 

Tabunaway 7,24 

tae 143 

tali 143 

taliga 143 

tamd 144 

tapioca 19 

lasi 153 

tdtalo 1 44 

tatou 1 45 

tattoo 27 

TcUez,  Father  Pedro 37 

thatch 22 

thousand,  diffuse  plurality 162 

tia  {lian) 213 

tifa 146 

timiiai 24 

Timuatea 147 

tind 146 

tinae 146 

tobacco 20 

toe 26 

togo 146 

tolu 1 60 

tongue,  voice  character 63 

tools 17 

tooth  filing 28 

trade-speech 77 


PAOS. 

translation  principles 47 

transliteration,  Saleeby  system 2 

tree  burial 39 

tree-houses 22 

Tregear,  Edward 102 

tribal  ward  farms 18 

trocha  Tukuran-Lintogud 4 

ttii 1 46 

tui 147 

Tukuran-Lintogud  trocha 4 

tulu 147 

tumu 147 

tupu 48 

ua 148 

ufi 148 

uila 148 

ule 149 

uli 149 

ulu 149 

uta 149 

uti 149 

'utii T24 

va'a 150 

vae 150 

valii 167 

vegetarian  diet 21 

village  life 24.  25 

Visayan  dictionary 52 

in  Mindanao 11 

settlement  area 89 

Subanu  relationship 77 

Vitiaz  Strait 1 74 

vocabulary  pitfalls 45 

sources 46 

vowel  loss 66 

production 57 

vowel-diphthong  mutation 169 

weaving 23 

Weyler,  General  \'^aleriano 4 

Whitney,  William  Dwight 100 

world,  ideas  of 114 

woman  balian 33 

laborer 26 

woodcraft 20 

word  force 69,  88 

tabu 116 

Xavier,  St.  Francis 37 

yaller  dog 49 

Yesindeed  Island 50 

Zamboanga 7 


Date  Due 


W^ 


APR  2  3  l&g^ 


ISaR  3 1 


-Af^^ ir 


APR  2  0  1964 


JML2J^ 


DEC  ?  6 


JAN 


JJfiR 


1  5  19g? 


19fi 


iaM_ 


19^ 


isfr 


<-.  A 


imr 


Library  Bureau  Cat.  No.  1137 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRAR  /  FAC'L  T  i 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONit  I  lRpt.av  i 


D     000  304  866     7 


&N  ^^/ 


